SF 263 
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Buttermakers 

Short 

Course 



McLaughlin 




Class 

Book 

Copyright N 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Buttermakers Short Course 



By 



MR. and MRS. W. J. McLAUGHLIN 

Expert Buttermakers and Directors of the 

Buttermaking Service Department 

of the Minnetonna Company, 

Owatonna, Minnesota 



reference book of practical and 

scientific information on creamery 

buttermaking and creamery 

operation as based on 

experience of the 

authors 



Published by 

THE AUTHORS 

Owatonna. Minn. 






FIRST EDITION 



COPYRIGHT. 1917. 
By 

w. j. Mclaughlin 






OCT I (917 



>CI.A478762 



TO 



To the creamery buttermaker, that 
the operation of his plant may 
reach its highest degree of effi- 
ciency in operation, and that his 
daily problems may be lessened by 
the practical experience of others, 
this book is respectfully dedicated 



PREFACE 

This volume is the result of practical experience in the scientific 
operation of creamery butter manufacturing plants. The daily 
problems of creameries and in buttermaking often hinders the operator 
and buttermaker in performing his duties successfully. 

It is then reasonable that we should give the creamery industry 
the full benefit of our experiences, in plain, practical, easy to under- 
stand, information. The essential scientific buttermaking and cream- 
ery operating knowledge that we have acquired in our quarter century 
of experience as buttermakers and dairy experts is presented to the 
industry in this volume, so designed as to furnish both a text-book and 
a reference book for daily use. 

Buttermaking and creamery operation have been thoroughly 
benefited by a combination of scientific principles and experience. 
You need only to compare the efficiency and rapidity of the butter- 
making equipment in the modern creamery to know that there will 
come daily problems which can be most readily solved by reference 
to the experience of others. 

In the first several chapters of this volume, we are indebted to 
Mr. Wm. Boss, of St. Paul, Minnesota, for the use of the illustra- 
tions. The figures used are from Mr. Boss' book entitled, "Instruc- 
tions for Traction and Stationary Engines." This book is a useful 
volume and is broad in its scope of engineering information. 

The chapter contained in this volume covering creamery 
refrigeration is a reprint from Bulletin No. 59 of the Minnesota 
Dairy and Food Department. In acknowledgment of the reprint of 
this bulletin we are presenting to the industry the most practical 
information on the subject. 

The Minnetonna Company of Owatonna, Minnesota, has given 
valuable assistance by enabling the authors to take up every phase of 
buttermaking problems from first source of production to the larger 
points of distribution of the manufactured product. 

Any problem in buttermaking or dairy work can be sent to the 
Minnetonna Company, who will immediately refer such problems to 
its service department, with which the authors are associated. 

The Authors. 



Table of Contents 



Chapter 


I. 


Chapter 


II. 


Chapter 


III. 


Chapter 


IV 


Chapter 


V. 


Chapter 


VI. 


Chapter 


VII. 


Chapter 


VIII. 


Chapter 


IX. 


Chapter 


X. 


Chapter 


XI. 


Chapter 


XII. 


Chapter 


XIII 


Chapter 


XIV 


Chapter 


XV. 


Chapter 


XVI. 


Chapter 


XVII. 


Chapter 


XVIII 


Chapter 


XIX. 


Chapter 


XX 


Chapter 


XXI. 


Chapter 


XXII. 


Chapter 


XXIII. 


Chapter 


XXIV. 


Chapter 


XXV. 


Chapter XXVI. 


Chapter XXVII. 



Boilers 9 

Engines and Engineering 21 

Speed and Speeds of Pulleys 37 

Belt Lacing 40 

Utilization of Exhaust Steam for Heat in 

Creameries 44 

Testing Dairy Products for Butterfat. . . 53 
Neutralizing Cream for Buttermaking. . . 56 

Cream Blowing 60 

Pasteurization of Cream for Buttermaking 62 

Commercial Starters 69 

Testing Milk and Cream for Acidity .... 75 

Cream Ripening 77 

Flavors in Cream and Butter 81 

Churning of Cream 85 

Salting Butter and Salt Test 90 

Moisture in Butter and Moisture Test ... 92 

Overrun 95 

Preparing Packages for Market 97 

Scoring Butter 1 00 

Creamery Refrigeration 1 02 

Ventilation of Creameries 122 

Cream Separators' Speeds 131 

Milk for Market 1 33 

Chemistry and Chemical Analysis of Milk 1 36 

Dairy Cow Judging 141 

Dairy Cows Feeds and Feeding 143 

General Creamery Information 147 



Buttermafyers Short Course 



CHAPTER I 

Boilers 

A steam boiler is a vessel in which steam in generated by 
applying heat to water to be used for power or heating purposes. 
(Fig. I.) 

Size of Boiler and Horse Power 

In speaking of the size of boiler, it is common practice to 
state size in horse .power. The horse power means the size of a 
boiler, large enough to furnish steam to an engine doing equal to the 
given number of horse power contained in the engine. 

Methods of Estimating Horse Power of Steam Boilers 

One is to measure amount of heating surface upon the boiler, 
the other is to measure the amount of water the boiler will turn into 
steam in a given length of time, such as an hour. 

Horse Power by Test 

The commercial horse power of a boiler is an evaporation of 
30 lbs. of water per hour from feed water at a temperature of 1 00° 
Fah. into steam at 70 lbs. gauge pressure with good fuel and 
ordinary firing. In this way a 20 H. P. boiler would use 20x30, or 
600 lbs. of water in one hour, doing 20 H. P. work — water to enter 
the boiler at a temperature of 1 00° Fah. and steam used at 70 lbs. 
gauge pressure. 

Horse Power by Heating Surface 

For example, suppose we had a boiler 36 inches in diameter, 
1 feet long, with thirty 3-inch tubes, and wished to know the 



10 Buttermakers Short Course 




Fig. 1. Steam Boiler. 



A — Boiler. 

B — Front. 

C — Flue Door. 

D — Fire Door. 

E — Ash Door. 

F — Grates. 

G — Door Liner. 

H— Bridge Wall. 

I — Bracket and Rollers. 

J — Back Arch. 

K — Dome. 

L — Safety Valve. 

M — Steam Gage. 



N — Steam Gage Syphon. 

O — Water Column. 

P — Tube Sheet. 

Q — Tubes. 

R — Hand Hole. 

S— Blow Off Valve. 

T — Hand Stop Valve. 

U— Check Valve. 

V — Boiler Feed Pipe. 

W — Clean Out Door. 

X — Smoke Pipe or Britcher. 

Y — Damper. 



Buttermakers Short Course 11 



amount of heating surface and horse power. One-half of the cir- 
cumference equals 4,71 feet; 4.71 times 10 feet equals 47.1 square 
feet in the shell. The circumference of each tube is 9.42 inches; 
the length of each tube 120 inches; 9.42 times 120 equals 1,130.4 
square inches; 1,130.4 square inches divided by 144 equals 7.85 
square feet heating surface in one tube; 7.85 times 30 equals 235.5 
square feet in thirty tubes. For the tube sheets we would measure 
the surface of both sheets and deduct the area of the tubes, also 
deduct the surface above the water. The heating surface of the 
sheets in this boiler would be about 7 feet. Adding the heating 
surface — 47.1 feet in the shell, 235.5 feet in the tubes, 7 feet in 
the tube sheets — give us 289.6 square feet of heating surface: 289.6 
divided by 14, the number of feet required for one horse power, 
equals 20.6 horse power. 

Horse Power by Grate Surface 

Sometimes the horse power of a boiler is roughly estimated 
by the number of square feet of grate surface. This is found by 
multiplying the length of the grates by their width. The amount 
of grate surface required under a horizontal tube boiler for one horse 
power would be from one-third to one-half square foot. If the 
grates of boiler were 36x42 inches, it would give 1 OJ/2 square feet. 
Allowing one-half square foot for one horse power, it would be 
sufficient grate surface for a 21 horse power boiler. Figuring the 
horse power of a boiler by grate surface is not nearly as accurate 
as figuring it by the heating surface. 

Care of Steam Boilers 

To give proper service and to be absolutely safe, a boiler must 
be kept clean especially. A boiler should be washed and examined 
at least every thirty days, the handhole plates taken out and the 
boiler washed clean. And the flues and crown sheets all looked 
over to see they are free from scale or mud. 



12 Buttermakers Short Course 



Blowing Out Boiler 

This should be done every day to remove mud and dirt in the 
boiler and also to prevent foaming. 

Scale on Boiler 

One-sixteenth of an inch will require 15% more fuel. Scale 
in a boiler is a non-conductor of heat, somewhat similar to brick or 
earth. The heat from the fuel is not conducted through the scale 
to the water, consequently it increases the fuel bills and is hard on 
the flues and other parts of the boiler, due to the terrible heat it 
requires to heat water through scale. 

Cleaning Ashes from Pit 

This is often neglected in creameries especially. It checks 
draughts and burns up the grates as the air cannot circulate under 
the grates when full of ashes also causes poor draught, requiring more 
fuel. 

Boiler Compounds 

When water forms a hard scale it is necessary to use a boiler 
compound to prevent scale from forming on flues or boiler shell. 
When a compound is necessary, the proper way is to have water 
analyzed by a chemist and get compound to fit the water, using just 
enough to act upon the scale forming substances in the water. 

Blister in Boiler 

A blister in a boiler is where the metal softens and stretches. 
This occurs when the metal is soft and often happens when exhaust 
steam heats water direct, getting cylinder oil into water, the oil 
adhering to the metal, over the fire box, keeping the water from 
coming in contact with the metal and the heat from the furnace 
softens the metal so the pressure from boiler stretches or blisters. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 13 



The only remedy is to cut out blister and put patch on boiler. A 
bag or sag is formed in the same way, and sometimes when not too 
bad it can be heated and driven back to place. 

Banking Fire 

Banking fire consists of covering fire with ashes or coal, closing 
dampers or draughts, and banking fire to hold over night. The fire 
should be pushed to one side of grates, and large pieces of coal put 
into the furnace, then covered with wet ashes. Fires can be banked 
to hold forty-eight hours. 

Boiler Inspection 

A boiler inspector should inspect a boiler by giving a thorough 
examination inside and outside and noting its general condition. 

Hammer Test 

A hammer test is made by striking boiler in places liable to be 
weak and noting the sound, whether the material is thick enough or 
whether there are cracks or defects in the boiler. A good boiler 
sheet will give a clear ringing sound when struck, while a thin or 
cracked sheet will sound dead or dull, and can be readily discovered 
by an experienced man. If there is any doubt about a boiler being 
safe it should have the hydrostatic test. This consists of filling the 
boiler with cold water and applying pressure with a force pump until 
the pressure is raised sufficiently high enough to warrant safe work- 
ing pressure. Fifty per cent above the point where the steam pres- 
sure is carried, usually 1 00 lbs. of pressure to the square inch, is 
highest working pressure on creamery boilers. 

Injectors 

An injector is a device for supplying a steam boiler with water. 
Every boiler should have two sources of supply — a pump and an 
injector. The injector accomplishes its work by the energy of a 



14 Buttermafyers Short Course 



steam jet from the boiler. The energy which the steam jet has is 
derived by the heat given off by the condensation of the steam, the 
steam escaping through the jet at a high temperature and high 
velocity. As it comes in contact with the cold water the steam is 
condensed and its heat is given to the water, and sufficient velocity 
is imparted to the water to enable it to enter the boiler. 

Injector Troubles 

Dirt drawn into water, air leaks in suction pipe, water too hot, 
injector scaled up, overflow valve scaled up, check valve between 
boiler leaks making injector hot, pipe between injector and boiler 
may be closed. 

To Clean Injector 

Soak over night in a solution of one part of muriatic acid and 
ten parts of water; keep solution in jar, as it can be used several 
times. 

Tensile Strength 

Means pulling strength required to break a bar of material one 
inch square. Boiler iron contains from 50,000 to 60,000 pounds 
tensile strength. Single riveted boiler has 56% tensile strength. 
Double riveted boiler has 70% tensile strength. The lap or strap 
joint, three to four iron rivets, has 90% tensile strength. 

Strength of Steam Boiler 

A boiler 24 inches in diameter, I/4-inch shell, will stand two 
times as much pressure as a boiler 48 inches in diameter, and J/£ 
inch thick; so a 48-inch boiler to compare in tensile strength should 
be Yi inch thick. 

Bursting Pressure of Steam Boiler 

To find the bursting pressure of a steam boiler, multiply the 



Buttermakers Short Course 15 



tensile strength of shell by thickness of shell in inches; multiply this 
by kind of riveted joint and divide this amount by radius, or one-half 
of diameter. 

The safe working pressure is one-sixth of bursting pressure. 

Example: Diameter of boiler, 36 inches; thickness of shell, 
Y inch; tensile strength, 60,000 lbs.; seams double riveted. What 
is the bursting pressure, and the safe working pressure? 

60,000 multiplied by J/4 inch (thickness of shell) equals 
15,000; 15,000 multiplied by 70% equals 10,500; 10,500 divided 
by 18 inches (radius of boiler) equals 583 lbs., bursting pressure. 

583 lbs. divided by 6 (factor of safety) equals 97 lbs., safe 
working pressure. 

Testing Chain 

One foot of chain is put into machine and 1 4,000 lbs. pulled 
on chain and held for 3 minutes. Afterwards chain is examined to 
see if it has not stretched, nor pulled out in rivets. Stretching of 
chain causes the climbing of gears. 

Rules for Figuring Ball and Lever Safety Valves 

The following rules are given in order that a creamery engineer 
may be able to figure the proper blowing-off point of a safety 
valve. (Fig. 2.) In each of the three rules the same size valve, 
lever, etc., are used. The dimensions are as follows: 

Weight of ball, 25!/ 2 lbs. 

Required pressure, 1 00 lbs. per sq. in. 

Distance from fulcrum to valve stem, 2 inches. 

Weight of lever, valve and valve stem (taken directly above 
the valve stem by means of a spring scale), 8 lbs. 

Diameter of safety valve, 2 inches. 

Area of safety valve (2x2x.7854) equals 3.1416 sq. in. 

Rule I. To find distance, ball should be placed on a lever, 
multiply the pressure required by the area of the valve. Subtract 



16 Buttermakers Short Course 



A — Valve Disk. 

B — Valve Stem. 

C — Fulcrum. 

D — Lever. 

E— Ball. 

F — Pipe from Boiler. 




| F 

J | 

J 

s 6 



Fig. 2. Safety Valve. 



the weight of the lever, valve and stem, and multiply the answer by 
the distance from fulcrum to center of valve stem. Divide by the 
weight of the ball, and the answer will give the distance to place 
the ball from the fulcrum. 

Example: Pressure (100 lbs.) multiplied by area of valve 
(3.1416) equals 314.16; 314.16 less weight of lever, valve and 
stem (8 lbs.) equals 306.16; 306.16 multiplied by distance from 
fulcrum to center of valve stem (2 inches) equals 612.32; 612.32 
divided by weight of ball (25 j^ lbs.) equals 24 inches, length of 
lever. 

Rule II. To find weight required for a given pressure, multiply 
the pressure by the area of the valve. Subtract the weight of the 
lever, valve and valve stem, and multiply the answer by the distance 
from fulcrum to center of valve stem. Divide by the length of the 
lever from the fulcrum to the point of bearing of the ball upon the 
lever. 

Example: Pressure (100 lbs.) multiplied by area of valve 



Buttermakers Short Course 17 



(3.1416) equals 314.16 sq. in.; 314.16 less weight of lever, valve 
and stem (8 lbs.) equals 306.16; 306.16 multiplied by distance 
from fulcrum to center of valve stem (2 inches) equals 612.32; 
612.32 divided by length of lever (24 inches) equals 25|/2 lbs., 
weight of ball. 

Rule III. To find the pressure, divide the length of lever by 
the distance from fulcrum to center of valve stem. Multiply answer 
by weight of ball. Add weight of lever, valve and stem, and divide 
by area of valve. The answer will be the steam pressure per square 
inch. 

Example: Length of lever (24 inches) divided by the distance 
from fulcrum to center of valve stem (2 inches) equals 1 2 ; 1 2 multi- 
plied by weight of ball (25 Yi lbs.) equals 306; 306 plus weight 
of lever, valve and stem (8 lbs.) equals 314; 314 divided by area 
of valve (3.1416) equals 99.95 lbs. Practically 100 lbs. steam 
pressure. 

What is Steam? 

Steam is a vapor given off from water when heated to a 
boiling point. 

What is the Boiling Point of Water? 

. The boiling point of water depends upon the pressure. In an 
open kettle at the sea level water boils at 212° Fah. If confined 
in a closed boiler the boiling temperature will rise when the steam 
pressure rises. If a vacuum be produced, the water will boil at less 
than 212° Fah. The boiling point depends upon the vacuum 
secured. 

The temperature of water at 100 lbs. gauge pressure is 337° 
Fah. 

How much more space will water occupy when turned into 
steam than it occupied as water? The space occupied by water 
when turned into steam at a pressure of 1 00 lbs. will occupy 240 



18 Buttermafyers Short Course 




scoaaoccE 



Fig. 3. Water Gauge. 



times as much; and at an atmospheric pressure will occupy 1,700 
times as much space. 

Horv Should a Glass Gauge be Set on a Steam Boiler? 

The glass gauge should be set so that the bottom of the glass 
is level or just a trifle higher than the top of the flues in the boiler. 
(Fig. 3.) 

How Can We Tell a Gauge is Properly Set? 

By removing handhole and measuring amount of water over 
flues and comparing with the level of bottom of glass. 

Horv Should Gauge Cocks Be Set? 

The lowest gauge cock should be set one inch above the 
crown sheet; the second one, four to six inches above; the third one, 
four to six inches higher. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 19 



Water Column 

The water column on a boiler consists of a hollow cylindrical 
casting about 3 to 4 inches in diameter by 1 2 to 18 inches in length, 
into which are screwed the gauge cocks and glass gauge. Often the 
steam gauge is attached to the upper end, and a valve for blowing 
out, at the lower end. The lower end of the water column is 
connected to the boiler in the water space, and the upper end is 
connected to the top of the boiler or steam space, as shown in Fig. 
3, which shows the manner in which they are generally placed on 
boilers set in brick work. 

British Thermal Unit 

The British thermal unit is amount of heat required to raise 
temperature of a pound of water one degree, or change the tempera- 
ture from 62° Fah. to 63° Fah. British thermal is called Joule 
(J) = 778 lbs. work. 

Sizes of Boilers for Creameries 

A creamery making 300,000 lbs. of butter per year should 
have a 30 H. P. boiler and a 20 H. P. engine. 

A creamery making 200,000 lbs. of butter yearly should have 
a 25 H. P. boiler and a 1 5 H. P. engine. 

A creamery making 150,000 lbs. of butter yearly should have 
a 20 H. P. boiler and a 1 2 H. P. engine. 

A creamery making 1 00,000 lbs. of butter yearly should have 
an 1 8 H. P. boiler and a 1 h. p. engine. 

It is poor economy in purchasing a small power plant in either 
boiler or engine. 



20 Buttermakers Short Course 



Steam Gauge 

The steam gauge is an instrument for showing the steam pres- 
sure in the boiler, the pressure being shown in pounds per square 
inch. When the gauge 
shows 100 lbs., it means 
there is a pressure of 1 00 
lbs. against every square 
inch of the boiler surface. 
(Fig. 4.) 

How Gauge Works 

The pressure of steam 
has a tendency to force the 
spring out of a coil shape to 
straight. This works the 
little V-shaped part with 
fine cogs on the hand, mov- 
ing the hand to register num- 
ber of pounds pressure to 
the square inch of space con- 
tained in the boiler. As the steam increases in pressure it straightens 
the spring and drives the hand around to register according to the 
figures the hand points to on steam gauge. 




Fig. 4. Steam Gauge. 



How to Test Steam Gauge 

Use pump, screw up, forcing oil into gauge spring and have 
a tested gauge in connection so the pounds of pressure indicated on 
gauges can be compared. 



To Set Spring 

When spring becomes weak it can be set by bending down a 
little. The safest way is to get new gauge. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 21 



CHAPTER II 

Engines and. Engineering 

Steam Engines 

An apparatus for converting heat into work. A complex and 
powerful machine, a prime mover, anything used to effect a purpose. 
The modern steam engine is due to James Watt, an instrument 
maker in the University of Glasgow, Scotland. (Fig. 5.) 

Kinds of Engines 

Rotary; simple; compound; condensing; cross-compound; 
tandem compound and regenerating gas; gasoline. 

History of Steam Engine 

The beginning of the steam engine was in 1 698, a water 
raising engine being invented by Thomas Savery. With this engine 
the steam worked directly on the water to be raised. In the same 
year Thomas Newcomb made a piston engine which approached 
nearer our modern steam engine of today. 

Inventor of Cut-Off 

A lazy but ingenious boy by the name of Humphrey Potter, 
who had been left to turn the valve, made the engine open and 
close its own valve by means of cords and thus invented the automatic 
cut-off or valve gear. 

Dead Center 

In setting the slide-valve on a steam engine, it is very necessary 
that the engine be placed on the dead center when the valve is 



22 Buitermakers Short Course 




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Buttermakers Short Course 23 



adjusted. An engine is said to be on the dead center when the 
piston is at the end of its stroke, or when the center of the wrist pin, 
the center of the crank pin, and the center of the main shaft are all 
in a straight line. The crank passes two dead centers in each 
revolution. 

If the engine has the proper amount of lead, steam is admitted 
to the cylinder when it is on the dead center, but the engine will 
not start when it is on the dead center, as the pressure on the piston 
will be pushing or pulling directly against the crank shaft. Locomo- 
tives, hoisting engines, and other engines, are often made with two 
cylinders and cranks connected to the same shaft, one crank a 
quarter of a revolution ahead of the other in order to always have 
one crank off the dead center, thus enabling them to start at what- 
ever point the engine may have stopped. 

It is very necessary when setting the slide valve to put the 
engine on the exact dead center. This should be done accurately, 
as a very little difference either way will make considerable difference 
in the valve. It will be noted that while the engine is on dead 
center, a little movement of the crank up or down has very little 
effect upon the piston, as the piston moves very slowly while the 
crank is passing the dead center. The motion of the slide-valve, 
however, when the engine is near the dead center is considerable, as 
it is controlled by the eccentric, and the eccentric is set a little more 
than a quarter of a turn ahead of the crank. It will be noted, then, 
that when the piston is traveling at its slowest speed near the end 
of the cylinder, the slide valve will be traveling at its fastest speed 
and any movement of the crank up or down which would have a 
slight effect upon the piston would have considerable effect upon the 
slide-valve. 

There are several methods of putting an engine on the dead 
center. About the simplest and most accurate method is with the 
use of a tram; a tram being simply a rod with a point at each end 
turned at right angles. 



24 Buttermakers Short Course 




Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7. 




Fig. 8. 



Illustrations for Finding Dead Center on 
Engine. 



Buttermal?ers Short Course 25 



To put an engine on the dead center with a tram, turn the 
engine about one-eighth of a revolution off the center, and with a 
sharp knife make a mark on the cross-head and guide, as at A, 
Fig. 6. 

At some convenient point on the engine frame make a mark 
(best with a sharp center punch), as at B. Then with a tram, 
which may be of any convenient length, place one end at the center 
punch mark B, and with the other end make the mark on the fly- 
wheel as at C. Now turn the fly-wheel over on the other side of 
the dead center until the marks on the cross-head and guide come 
together again, which will place the crank position as shown in 
Fig. 7, or as far below the center as it was above the center in 
Fig. 6. With the same tram make another mark on the fly-wheel, 
as at D. Now measure on the fly-wheel and find a point half way 
between C and D, as at E, Fig. 8, and turn the wheel until this 
mark is even with the tram. The engine will be on the dead center. 
Make a permanent mark on the fly-wheel at E. By keeping the 
tram it will be very easy at any time to put the engine on dead center, 
by simply turning it to fit the tram. • After the permanent mark E 
is made on the fly-wheel, it is not necessary to preserve the marks 
on the cross-head. 

The other dead center may be found in the same way by 
placing the engine near the other dead center and marking the cross- 
head at the other end, or it may be found by measuring half way 
around the wheel from E, and turning that point to fit the tram. 

Occasionally a crank disk is used in place of the fly-wheel, it 
sometimes being more convenient to take measurements from. 

In making the tram it is well to make it some definite length, 
such as twelve or eighteen inches from point to point. In case the 
tram gets lost at any time, another one may be made the same length 
and it will fit the marks upon the engine. 

Setting Slide-Valve 

To set the slide-valve of a simple engine, have the engine hot, 



26 Buttermakers Short Course 



remove the cover from the steam chest in order to get at the slide- 
valve, put the engine on the dead center, and turn the high part of 
the eccentric 90°, or a quarter of a revolution, ahead of the crank, 
in the direction the engine is to run. Place the slide-valve in the 
center of its travel and fasten it to the slide-valve rod. Now turn 
the eccentric in the direction the engine is to run, until the desired 
amount of lead is obtained (about 1/16 of an inch). Fasten the 
eccentric to the main shaft and turn the engine on the other dead 
center to see that it has the same amount of lead at the other end. 
If the lead is the same at both ends, the valve will be properly set. 
If there is more lead at one end of the slide-valve than at the other, 
it must be made even by moving the slide-valve on the rod one-half 
of the difference between the leads. If the engine then has too 
much lead, move the eccentric back towards the crank until the right 
amount is obtained. If the engine does not have enough lead, move 
the eccentric ahead, or away from the crank, to get more lead. 

The lead of an engine must always be made even at both ends, 
by moving the slide-valve on the rod. 

Moving the eccentric changes the lead at both ends of the 
slide-valve. Turning the eccentric ahead, or away from the crank, 
will give more lead at both ends. Turning the eccentric back towards 
the crank will give less lead at both ends. A vertical engine should 
have a little more lead on the lower end than it has at the upper 
end, as the weight of the rods, crosshead and piston requires more 
cushion on the lower end. 

The above rule for setting the slide-valve applies to the simple 
slide-valve engine that has no rocker arm, and also to engines having 
a rocker arm pivoted at one end. 

Horse Power 

The common standard to which all work is reduced is horse 
power. Any combination that will, when multiplied together, give 
33,000 foot pounds, raised one foot high, per minute is 1 H. P. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 27 



Horse power originated on a canal boat. It was found that 
a horse walking 2.5 miles per hour, pulling 150 lbs. on his traces, 
that the main effective energy which he developed was 33,000 
pounds per hour; 150 lbs. x 5,280 ft. in one mile x 2.5 miles per 
hour x 60 seconds in one minute, equals 33,000 foot pounds. 

Power and work is the overcoming of resistance. 

Horse power of an engine is 33,000 pounds raised one foot, 
vertically, in one minute. The unit of power is work in foot 
pounds. One pound raised one foot in one minute is one foot 
pound. 

The horse power of an engine may be known, where the size 
of the cylinder, the length of the stroke, the number of revolutions 
per minute, when the average steam pressure on the piston during 
its full stroke is known. 

The average steam pressure on the piston can be determined 
by the use of an indicator. When this is not used it is customery to 
figure one-half the boiler pressure. 

Main Effective Pressure 

The average steam pressure on the piston during its full stroke 
is called main effective pressure and is marked M. E. P. 

To Find the Horse Power of an Engine 

Multiply the main effective pressure on the piston in pounds 
per square inch by the area of the piston in square inches, to obtain 
the total pressure on the piston. Multiply twice the number of 
revolutions per minute by the length of the stroke, and reduce it to 
feet to obtain the feet of the piston per minute. Multiply the total 
pressure on the piston by the piston speed to obtain the total work 
done per minute. Divide this last product by 33,000 (the number 
of foot pounds in one horse power) ; the quotient will be the 
theoretical horse power of the engine. 

In determining the horse power of an engine in this manner, 



28 Buttermakers Short Course 



some allowance should be made for the amount of power consumed 
by the engine itself while running. 

In calculating the area of the piston, allowance should be made 
for the space on one side which is occupied by the piston rod. To 
obtain the average area upon which the steam acts, deduct one-half 
of the area of the piston-rod. 

Figuring Horse Power of a Steam Engine 

Q. What would be the horse power of a simple slide-valve 
engine having a cylinder 6x9 inches running 225 revolutions per 
minute, carrying 100 pounds steam pressure on the boiler? Diameter 
of the piston rod 1 Y4 inches. 

A. Six times 6 equals 36; 36 times .7854 equals 28.2744 
(area of piston) ; 28.2744 minus .61 35 (half the area of the piston 
rod) equals 27.6639 inches (actual area of the piston) ; 27.6639 
times 50 (half of boiler pressure) equals 1383.195 (total average 
pressure on piston); 9 inches (length of stroke) times 2 equals 18 
inches of travel of piston with each revolution; 225 times 18 equals 
4,050 inches; 4,050 inches divided by 12 equals 337.5 feet, travel 
of piston per minute; 1,383.195 times 337.5 equals 466,828 foot 
pounds; 466,828 divided by 33,000 equals 14.1 horse power. 

Brake Horse Power 

The brake horse power of an engine is the actual power which 
the engine will develop aside from the power required to drive the 
engine itself, and is the power it would be capable of supplying to a 
machine. The most common method of determining the power of 
the engine in actual operation is by means of the "Prony" brake. 
The Prony brake may be used for testing the power developed by a 
steam engine, gas engine, electric motor, or any machine from which 
power is obtained. 

Fig. 9 illustrates a "Prony" brake as it is usually applied to 
the fly-wheel of an engine. It consists of two blocks of wood fitted 
to the pulley of the engine, and is so arranged that by tightening up 



Buttermakers Short Course 29 




u 



Fig. 9. Illustration for Determining Horse by Brake 

Test. 



the bolts they may be made to grip the pulley more firmly. One of 
the blocks has an extension arm which rests upon a pair of scales, 
or, if the lever be turned on the opposite side from that shown, it 
may be weighted with weights, or, what is still better, held by means 
of a spring balance. When the engine is in motion and the screws 
are tightened on the blocks, the arm tends to be carried around with 
the pulley. With the end of the arm resting upon the scales this is 
presented, and the pressure with which the arm presses down upon the 
scales may be weighted upon the scales. The engine is started and 
the bolts drawn up until the friction of the brake causes the engine 
to work to its full capacity. 

In applying the Prony brake to a large pulley, it is quite 
common to attach a number of blocks to a belt or iron band sur- 
rounding the pulley, having the ends attached to the arm resting 
upon the scales. 

The blocks are kept cool by means of a stream of water run- 
ning upon them, or in some cases they are greased or oiled. The 
running water is better, however. 

It is evident that when the engine is in motion the pressure 
which is obtained at the end of the arm would be the same as would 
be obtained from a pulley having a radius equal to the distance from 
the center of the shaft to the point of the arm resting upon the scales. 



30 Buttermakers Short Course 



Multiplying the circumference, then, of a pulley having a radius 
equal to the length of the arm in feet, by the number of pounds 
shown upon the scales, by the number of revolutions per minute, 
would give the foot pounds of work which the engine was doing. 
By dividing this product by 33,000 (the number of foot pounds 
in one horse power) , the horse power of the engine is obtained. 

It will be noted that the size of the pulley is immaterial, for 
the length of arm is taken from the center of the pulley to the point 
of bearing upon the scales. 

Examples: Revolutions per minute, 200. Pressure given on 
the scales, 30 lbs. Distance from center of pulley to point of 
bearing of arm upon the scales, 3 feet. To find the horse power 
developed : 

3 feet, length of arm 
2 

6 feet, diameter of pulley having radius equal to length of arm. 
X decimal, 3.1416 feet 



= 18.8496 feet, circumference of pulley having radius equal to 
length of arm. 

18.8496 X 200 revolutions per minute = 3769.9200 feet per 
minute X 30 lbs. pressure on scales = 1 13097.6000 foot pounds 
~ 33000 = 3.42. 

33000) 113097.6 ( 3.42 horse power. 
99000 



140976 
1 32000 

89760 
66000 



Buttermakers Short Course 31 



Area 

Area is the extent of any open surface, and is found by multi- 
plying its length by its breadth, if square or rectangular. If the 
surface is circular the area is found by squaring the diameter, 
which is multiplying the diameter by itself, and multiplying this 
number by .7854. This rule will apply to any circular surface 
no matter what the diameter is. (Fig. 10.) 



£^Ls> 



DIAMETER- 




Fig. 10. Illustrating Diameter and Radius of Circle. 

Circumference is the distance around a circle. The circum- 
ference is found by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. 

The diameter is the distance across a circle or through a 
sphere, passing through its center. Doubling the diameter of a 
circle will double its circumference, and will increase its area four 
times. 



Governor 

An automatic arrangement in which the osolation retardation 
of the motion of the governor is changed due to changes of speed 
of the engine is made to cut off the steam at an earlier or later 
period of the stroke of the piston so that when the steam raises 
in volume and pressure or with lighter work the steam shall be 
cut off earlier in the stroke. And when greater work is imposed on 
the engine the steam pressure flags the steam cylinder so as to 
admit more steam during the longer stroke of the piston. 

In order to secure a steady motion from a steam engine, 



32 Buttermakers Short Course 



it is necessary that some arrangement be made for regulating the 
amount of steam applied to the cylinder and piston. Engines that 
do not require a steady speed such as the locomotive and steam- 
boat engine, are not usually equipped with a governor, the speed 
of the engine being controlled by the engineer in charge opening 
or closing the throttle-valve. The throttle-valve is the valve be- 
tween the boiler and the engine where the steam is turned on or 
off from the engine. 

Engines are divided into three common types according to 
their governors. Throttling Engine, Automatic Cut-off Engine, 
and Corliss Engine, each of which has its distinct type of gov- 
ernor. The governor in common use upon traction and creamery 
engines, is the throttling governor. Engines equipped with gov- 
ernors of this type are said to be throttling engines. 

Throttling Governors. 

On an engine equipped with a throttling governor, the slide- 
valve has a fixed point of cut-off, the slide-valve traveling the same 
distance at all times. The speed of the engine is regulated by 
the amount of steam which the governor allows to pass through it. 
This regulates the pressure of the steam in the steam chest. 

For instance, a large engine that has a throttling type of 
governor, when doing a small amount of work, might have steam 
in its boiler at, say, 1 00 pounds pressure. The governor would 
cut this steam pressure down as it enters the steam chest to perhaps 
15 or 25 pounds, or whatever pressure is required to keep the 
engine at the desired speed. In case the speed of the engine fell 
below the required speed, the governor would open a trifle and 
admit more steam into the steam chest and cylinder. If the speed 
of the engine should increase, the governor would close a trifle 
and decrease the pressure of the steam in the steam chest. On 
an engine equipped with this type of governor, it is not possible 
to work steam on expansion to the same extent that it is in an 
automatic cut-off of Corliss engine. 



Buttermakers Short Course 33 




Fig. 11. Governor for Steam Engine. 



Fig. 1 1 is a sectional illustration of a throttling Gardner gov- 
ernor, such as is in common use on stationary engines. The gov- 
ernor is usually placed upon the steam chest of the engine. Steam 
passes through the governor valve ( 1 ) in the direction indicated 
by the arrows. The valve in a governor is so constructed that 
steam pressure will have no effect upon its opening or closing. It 
will be noted that from the cut that the steam presses on the top 
of the valve as well as on the botton, giving an equal pressure 
on both sides. The valve is raised or lowered in its seat, to allow 
more or less steam to pass through it, by the valve stem (2) which 
extends up near the top of the governor. The valve stem is held 
up and the valve opened by the spring (4) pressing down upon one 
end of the lever, the other end of the lever raising the valve and 
stem. The tension of the spring and the speed of the governor 
is regulated by the hand wheel (3). When the governor is at 



34 Buitermakers Short Course 



rest the valve is wide open, and the governor balls (5) which 
are hung upon pivots, are dropped at the side of the governor. 

The power which operates the governor and controls the 
speed of the engine, is carried from a pulley upon the main shaft 
of the engine to the governor pulley (6). The motion is then 
carried through the pulley shaft and by means of gear wheels up 
to the governor balls, and causes them to revolve upon their stem. 
When the governor is in motion, the balls revolving tend to swing 
outward and upward turning upon the pivots from which they 
are suspended. In doing this the end of the lever on which the 
balls are being pressed downward upon the top of the valve stem, 
partly closing the valve and decreasing the amount of steam which 
the governor lets through into the steam chest. In case the speed 
of the engine decreases, the speed of the governor will decrease 
and the balls will lower their position, allowing the valve stem to 
rise and admit more steam to the steam chest. 

To increase the speed of the engine, screw down the hand- 
wheel (3), which will increase the tension on the spring and re- 
quire more speed from the engine and governor before the balls 
will rise sufficiently to shut off steam from the steam chest. 

To decrease the speed of the engine, screw up the handwheel 
(3), which will release the spring and allow the valve to be forced 
down with less speed of the engine. 

Governor Belt Off 

When the governor belt is taken off the pulley, the gov- 
ernor will open wide and remain in that position, giving the same 
effect that would be had were there no governor upon the engine. 
The engine is then controlled entirely by the steam pressure regu- 
lated by the throttle-valve. When the engineer has hold of the 
throttle and controls the steam admitted to the steam chest, and 
does not allow the engine to run too fast, it would have the same 
effect that the governor would have with the belt on. It is not a 



Buttermakers Short Course 35 



good plan, however, to remove the governor belt, as the engineer 
is liable to give the engine too much steam and run it at too high 
a speed. Running it at a high speed causes a severe strain upon 
all of the bearings and parts of the engine. The governor belt 
should always be left on. If it is desired to increase the speed 
of the engine, adjust the regulating screw of the governor to the 
required speed. Any traction engine will travel as fast as the 
manufacturers have designed that it should travel when the gov- 
ernor belt is on. 

Engine Racing 

An engine is said to be racing when the speed of the engine 
increases and then decreases while the engine has the same load 
upon it. This is usually caused by some trouble with the governor. 
The most common trouble is from the governor valve stem being 
packed too tight. When it is packed too tight the packing binds 
upon the stem, and it will require considerable force from the 
balls before they will force it down. After they have forced it 
down, the speed will decrease, and will sometimes decrease con- 
siderably before the pressure from the spring will raise it to admit 
steam again. The valve stem should be packed quite loosely in 
order to give the governor perfectly free play up and down. It 
should be packed with a soft packing, and the packing renewed 
frequently before it hardens. 

Occasionally an engine will race from the governor not being 
packed firmly enough. If an engine races, try loosening the pack- 
ing until the governor is perfectly free. Then if it does not stop, 
tightening the packing a trifle will sometimes remedy it. 

A governor will race in case it is not properly oiled. The 
pivots upon which the balls swing should be oiled, also the shaft 
upon which the balls revolve, and the shaft carrying the pulley 
wheel. 



36 Buttermakers Short Course 



A governor will also race if the governor belt is too loose 
and slips. 

In starting an engine, always turn the steam on slowly until 
the governor gets into operation and controls the speed of the 
engine. The throttle-valve should then be opened wide, the speed 
of the engine be controlled by the governor. 

Indicators 

Steam engine indicator is an instrument for recording the 
steam pressure at all points of the stroke of the piston on the steam 
engine. 

Increasing speed of engine will increase power. Doubling speed 
of engine will almost double power if boiler pressure be maintained. 

Speed indicator is an instrument to measure speed. 

Engine Racing Causes 

When the speed increases and decreases without difference 
of the load being pulled, we term it "Racing." This is caused by 
the governor. 

Where to look for trouble: 

Weak spring. 

Governor valve rod packed too firm. 

Not being packed enough. 

Bearings sticking. 

Not properly adjusted. 

If bearings are out of line. 

Engine not properly lubricated. 

Valve stem bent. 

Valve seat sprung by freezing. 

Sometimes cannot be repaired outside of machine shop. 

A governor admits 50 per cent of the boiler pressure. 

To decrease speed of engine, speed up governor, and vice versa. 



Buttermal?ers Short Course 37 



CHAPTER III 

Speed and Speeds of Pulleys 

Speeds 

One hundred and fifty R. P. M. is maximum speed. Very 
much. above or below is called high or low speed. 
Speed of Pulleys and Gearing 

In calculating the speed of pulleys for running shafting or 
machinery, it is not necessary to find their circumference. Pulleys 
are spoken of in reference to their diameter. The diameter of pul- 
leys commonly run in even inches, and in calculating them, where 
the calculations come under or over a full inch, the fraction is 
either thrown off or added to, as the case may be, in order to 
allow for slipping. Belts will slip or creep a trifle on pulleys. 
The driven pulley should be a trifle smaller than it figures. The 
driving pulley should be a trifle larger than it figures, to allow 
for slipping. In calculating the speed of gear wheels or chain 
sprocket wheels, multiply or divide by the number of teeth in the 
wheels. 

The pulley upon the engine, or the one which is doing the 
work, is called the driving pulley. The pulley upon the shafting, 
or the one that is being driven, is called the driven pulley. 

Rule I. To find the number of revolutions of driven pulley, 
when the diameter of the driving pulley and its speed are given: 

Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of 
revolutions per minute, and divide the product by the diameter of 
the driven pulley. The quotient will be the speed of the driven 
pulley. 



38 Butiermakers Short Course 



Example: Diameter of driving pulley, 30 inches. 

Revolutions per minute, 200. 

Diameter of driven pulley, 15 inches. 

What is the speed of the driven pulley? 

30 multiplied by 200 equals 6,000. 

6,000 divided by 15 equals 400, speed of driven pulley. 

Rule II. To find the diameter required for driven pulley, 
when its number of revolutions and the diameter and number of 
revolutions of the driving pulley, are given: 

Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of 
revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revolutions 
the driven pulley is to make: 

Example: Diameter of driving pulley, 30 inches. 

Revolutions of driving pulley per minute, 200. 

Speed required of driven pulley, 400 revolutions. 

What should be the diameter of the driven pulley? 

30 multiplied by 200 equals 6,000. 

6,000 divided by 400 equals 1 5 inches, diameter of diven 
pulley. 

Rule III. To find the number of revolutions of driving pul- 
ley, when its diameter and the diameter and speed of driven pulley 
are given: 

Multiply the diameter of driven pulley by its revolutions, and 
divide the product by the diameter of driving pulley. The quotient 
will be the speed required of driving pulley. 

Example: Diameter of driving pulley, 30 inches. 

Diameter of driven pulley, 15 inches. 

Speed of driven pulley, 400 revolutions. 

What is the speed of the driving pulley? 

400 multiplied by 1 5 equals 6,000. 

6,000 divided by 30 equals 200, required speed of driving 
pulley. 

Rule IV. To find diameter of driving pulley, when its speed 



Buttermakers Short Course 39 



and the speed of driven pulley and its number of revolutions per 
minute are given: 

Multiply the diameter of the driven pulley by its number of 
revolutions per minute. Divide the product by the number of 
revolutions of the driving pulley. The quotient will be the diam- 
eter of the driving pulley required. 

Example: Speed of driving pulley, 200 revolutions per minute. 

Diameter of driven pulley, 15 inches. 

Speed of driven pulley, 400 revolutions. 

What should be the diameter of the driving pulley? 

400 multiplied by 15 equals 6,000. 

6,000 divided by 200 equals 30, size required driving pulley. 



40 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER IV 

Belt Lacing 

Lacing Belt 

In order to get the best service from a belt, it should be cut 
the proper length and well laced. The belt should be tight enough 
to prevent slipping, but not tight enough to cause heating of the 
bearings. The proper tension of a belt can best be learned by 
experience. 

In putting on a leather belt it should be placed with the "hair" 
side or hard side next the pulley. After a belt has been run for 
a short time and is in good condition, this side will carry the most 
power without slipping. The belt will also last longer when run 
with this side next the pulley. Upon examining a leather belt it 
will be noted that the hair side is much more firm than the flesh 
side. If a belt be put on with the flesh side next the pulley the 
hair side will be obliged to stand the pulling strain. As the belt 
becomes older or harder, this pulling strain will crack the belt on 
the hard side. The strain must then be carried by the flesh side 
alone, which will have a tendency to stretch and the belt become 
loose. If a belt be run with the hard side next the pulley, the 
flesh side will stretch a trifle and the strain will be distributed through 
the entire thickness of the belt. Leather belts should be placed so 
as to run off from the laps and not on to the laps. This will 
prevent the belt from turning up at the ends of the splices. 

There are many patent belt fastenings upon the market, but 
probably the most satisfactory for all around work is the ordinary 
belt lace. If the lacing be well made, the belt should run for a 
considerable length of time without attention. One difficulty is 
that lacings are often put in hurriedly and are not properly done. 



Buttermakers Short Course 41 



The ends of the belt should be cut perfectly square across. 
The holes should be punched exactly opposite each other in the 
two ends. In punching holes in a leather belt it is well to use an 
oval punch, the longer diameter of the punch being parallel with 
the belt, so as to cut off as little of the belt as possible. In a 
rubber or Gundy belt, the holes should be made with an awl, which 
will separate the canvas in the belt without cutting it. 

For the best method of lacing there should be two rows of 
holes. It is usually better to put one more hole in the row next 
to the end, than in the second row. The size of lace to use will 
depend upon the size of the belt. If a light belt, the lace should 
be ]/4 of an inch wide, or less. With medium belts, % inch 
lace should be used. For heavy belt use Yl mcn l ace - 

Lace leather may be bought either in the hide or in bunches 
of 1 00 feet, 1 00 feet of lace, would be pieces sufficient to reach 
1 00 feet if they were laid end to end. Each piece is usually 
about four feet in length. Where much lace is used it is better 
to buy the hide, as in this way any desired width of lace may 
be cut. 

In lacing belts always keep the lace straight on the side of 
the belt that runs next the pulley, crossing the lace on the outside 
of the belt. Always start lacing in the center of the belt and at 
the center of the lace. Lace out and back with each end of the 
lace. This will bring the end of the lace back to the center of the 
belt. By placing the ends of lace through small holes punched a 
short distance back from the other holes, so the lace will draw 
through firmly, there will be no need of tying it. Simply cut off 
the lace about one-half inch from the hole. In making the lacing, 
the belt should be held so the sides of the belt will be straight 
with each other. 

After the lacing is made, it is a good plan to lay the belt 
on a block and with a hammer or mallet pound it down a little to 
flatten the lace where it passes through the holes and prevent jump- 
ing when the splice passes over the pulleys. 



42 Buttermakers Short Course 



o 
a 



U vJ 



- — -v» 

o 

D 



t 






I 



A B 

Fig. 12. 



A B 

Fig. 13. 



V\A\A\A\yr " " r - " 

uuyuu u uf u U 



o 




B 



Fig. 14. 



A B 

Fig. 15. 



Figure 12 shows a lacing for a small belt pulling a medium 
load. This is a good lacing where too much strain is not put 
upon the belt. A shows the flesh side of the belt, or side away 
from the pulley. B shows the hair side, or the side running next 
the pulley. 

Figure 1 3 shows a good lacing for a belt somewhat larger 
and heavier, and where much more work is required. 

Figure 1 4 shows a lacing for a heavy belt, doing heavy work. 
While this lacing is a little more complicated to make, it will stand 
more strain and will probably run with less pounding than the 
other lacings. The central part of the splice has two thicknesses 
of the lace, while the part farthest away from the joint of the 



Butterma^ers Short Course 43 



belt has only one thickness. In this lacing the one thickness strikes 
the pulley first and then the double thickness, which allows the 
splice to mount the pulley without pounding to a great extent. 

Figure 1 5 is the "hinge" lacing, and is frequently used on 
a belt running rapidly over a small pulley. This belt is laced the same 
as a baseball cover is sewed. In making this lacing the ends of the 
belt should be beveled off a trifle so as not to wear the lace. In making 
this lacing it is necessary that the ends of the lace come at the 
sides of the belt as the lace passes only once through each hole. 
This is in order to get as thin a lacing as possible and prevent 
pounding as it passes over the pulley. 

Belts are sometimes made endless. It is accomplished by 
trimming the ends of the belt down so as to lap and cementing 
them together with a belt cement. A belt that is made endless 
will run much better and quieter than where lacing is used. The 
objection to an endless belt is that it requires some time to make 
the joint, and it is more difficult to take off when it becomes slack, 
as the joint would have to be opened and recemented. 

A leather belt should be oiled with neats foot oil to keep 
it in good working condition. It should not be soaked full of the 
oil, as it would be liable to stretch, but just enough to keep it pliable 
and prevent cracking. It is not a good plan to apply rosin or any- 
thing of similar nature to a belt to prevent slipping. A belt should 
be wide enough and tight enough to do the work required of it 
without slipping. Rosin applied to a belt has a tendency to make 
it hard, and will shorten its life. 

In putting on a rubber belt it should be placed with the lap 
where fastened together next to pulley. This will prevent belt from 
dividing where lap is made, as pulling next to pulley will hold in 
place and prolong life of belt. 



44 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER V 

Utilization of Exhaust Steam for Heat in Creameries 

The most economical heating system is made by laying 2-inch 
pipes in the floor. They should be laid in sand or gravel, under the 
cement floor and connected with the exhaust steam from the engine. 
These pipes should be laid about six or eight inches from foundation 
around the room to be heated, and then about two to two and one- 
half feet apart, sloping a little towards the center of the room so as 
to drain. (Fig. 16.) 

Size of Pipe to Use 

Size of pipe is two inches when common pipe is used. The 
elbows used should be common galvanized ells used for water 
spouts. Have elbows large enough to slip over pipes, then use 
the cement to make the joint. When the galvanized elbows have 
rusted out the cement joint elbow will remain. When the pipes 
are laid the floors can be laid right over them. This allows pipes to 
expand and contract without cracking floors. 

Using Soil Pipe 

Cast iron soil pipe can also be used in 3-inch size. Then 
the distance between the pipes can be 3 feet apart and 1 foot from 
the foundation. The joints should be corked with lead so as to 
give the pipes a chance to expand and contract. 

Things to Remember if Using Exhaust Steam in the Floor 

Never lay pipes in cement as they will expand and crack floor. 
Be sure to use 2-inch pipes and 3-inch soil pipes when soil 

pipes are used. 



Buttermakers Short Course 45 




Illustrates how pipes are laid in the creamery floors 
for the purpose of heating the building, using exhaust 
steam from the engine. 

Fig. 16. 



46 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Be sure pipes have proper slope. 

Be sure to lay pipes in sand under cement, four to six inches 
of sand, under pipes are laid. 

The Advantage of Heating With Exhaust Steam 

It is economical as it costs practically nothing. 

It is sanitary — no radiators to leak, no steam to corrode. 

It does not take up any room. 

It helps to ventilate a creamery. 

It will last as long as a creamery will last. 

The only expense is the first cost. 

There is no up-keep. 

First cost in installing the exhaust pipes: The cost of pipes 
should range from five to twenty cents per foot, as second-hand pipes 
can be used. The actual cost for pipe and labor will be from 
$50.00 to $150.00, depending upon the size of the creamery. 

Heating of the Store Room. 

One pipe should be laid in store room — just enough to remove 
dampness from floor — about four feet from the outside of the room, 
and around room and out to the work room again. 

Capacities of Tanl^s 

Multiply the height in feet by the width in feet, and this by 
length in feet. Divide result by 4. 4x10 equals 40 x 6 equals 
240, divided by 4, equals 60 gallons. 

To reduce to gallons, length in inches by the height in inches 
by width in inches dividing by .231. 



Butterma^ers Short Course 47 



UTILIZATION OF EXHAUST STEAM IN 
CREAMERIES 

Of the many opportunities for more economical operation in 
creameries, none deserves attention any more than the proper utiliza- 
tion of the exhaust from the steam engine for heating feed water, 
wash water and skim-milk; also for heating the building in cold 
weather and for pasteurization of cream by the intermittent system. 

In ordinary creamery practice less than 1 per cent of the 
heat value in live steam is used in driving the engine, and the other 
90 per cent is piped outside and allowed to go to waste, yes, worse 
than waste, because the condensed water and oil is allowed to spatter 
all over at least one side of the building, which, to use a mild 
expression, does not add to the attractiveness of the creamery. The 
fact that some creameries have found it more economical to use 
the gas engine for power, is no doubt due to this waste of heat in 
the first place, and secondly, to a poor boiler work, poor draft, a 
careless fireman and a badly worn engine. 

There is no one convenience that can be added in the creamery 
that will save the buttermaker so much time and labor and at the 
same time reduce the cost of operation as much as will the installa- 
tion of an enclosed exhaust water heater, that has a capacity of 
300 to 500 gallons of water, together with a belt driven boiler 
feed pump. It means a constant water level in the boiler by adjust- 
ing the pump to the proper speed, and plenty of hot water for 
washing the churns, utensils, floor, etc., at all times. 

Cost 

As compared with an injector for boiler feed, and live steam 
for heating all wash water, this outfit will pay for itself in about 
a year, as the total cost of tank, pump, pipes, valves, etc., will 
only be about $150.00 to $200.00, depending on the size of tank, 
kind of pump, and the amount of piping necessary. 



48 Butter makers Short Course 



Other Heaters 

There are quite a number of creameries that have, or have 
had, so-called exhaust heaters, but they were not built along lines 
best suitable for creamery purposes, as they all held a small quantity 
of water and were dependent on a steady stream of exhaust, which 
is not always available. For this reason we have had a heater 
built and installed at the Albert Lea State Creamery as per plans 
on the following pages, which has proved practical and satisfactory, 
and which we recommend as an investment for all creameries using 
steam for power. 

Size of Tank and Coils 

A tank 8 feet long by 42 inches diameter, with a 2]/2~inch 
twelve-pipe coil will hold about 500 gallons of water, and is 
suitable for large creameries having two churns and everything else 
in proportion. A smaller tank, 8 feet long by 36 inches diameter, 
with a twelve-pipe coil made from 2-inch pipe, will hold a little 
over 300 gallons and will be found large enough for small and 
medium creameries where there is only one churn and the exhaust 
pipe on the engine is only two inches. The smaller coil can be 
used in the large tank if you have a small engine and a large 
creamery; or the large coil can be used in a small tank if you 
have a large engine and a small creamery. The idea is to use a 
coil that will correspond somewhat with the amount of exhaust it 
will have to handle, so as not to cause back pressure on the engine. 
It is also important that each pipe in the coil lay as nearly level as 
possible, so as not to form any water pockets. 

Location 

By studying the drawings anyone will easily understand the 
principle on which this heater will work. It can be placed any- 
where, so long as the top of the heater is at least one foot below the 
bottom of the water tank, which is usually located in the upper 
story or suspended immediately below the ceiling. A suitable loca- 



Buttermakers Short Course 49 



tion in most creameries will be on the rear part of the boiler work 
or tank suspended from ceiling, as shown- in Figure No. 1 7, and as it 
only needs support near the two ends, it will not rest on the boiler or 
interfere with same in any way. 

Water Connections 

The water is piped from the water tank to the bottom of the 
heater, which, when full, will overflow to any part of the creamery 
as long as there is water left in the supply tank, but no longer. 
As the water warms up it will naturally rise to the top of the 
heater, and in this way the hottest water is always drawn first, 
while it may yet be quite cold at the bottom or center. It is most 
desirable to have the water inlet and outlet at opposite ends, and 
ordinarily 1 J^-inch pipe is sufficiently large for this purpose, with 
1 inch or three-fourths inch branch lines to the feed pump, 
churm, wash sink, etc. It is a disadvantage to have too large 
distributing pipes for the hot water, as it will quickly cool off, 
and considerable lukewarm water will be wasted. When connect- 
ing up the cold water be sure to screw a short pipe two or three 
inches up into the heater, then use a tee or cross on the outside, 
so that this inlet can be used for outlet as well, in case you were 
short of water after cleaning the boiler, or in case of emergency 
you could draw all the water that is contained in the heater. 

Waste Water Tank 

Every creamery should have a separate tank upstairs into which 
they could pump all the waste water from the cream vats, pasteuriz- 
ing cooler, starter can and from the compressor where mechanical 
refrigeration is used. Then this waste water can be piped to the 
heater and will be found to be more than sufficient to feed the 
boiler, and for all possible washing purposes in a creamery, and 
will save the cost of a pump and tank many times over. This is 
epecially true where water can only be had at great depth. 



50 Buttermakers Short Course 




cd 
u 



eg 

CO 






Cd 

o 



cd 

a 



CO 

3 
cd 






Buttermafyers Short Course 51 



Exhaust Connections 

The exhaust should be piped directly up through the roof with 
as few turns as possible, and have an exhaust head above the roof 
and a back pressure valve just below the ceiling and it can then 
be branched off to the water heater, skim-milk heater or radiators 
with a separate valve on each of these branches, so as to properly 
regulate the amount of exhaust desired for each purpose. It is 
usually found most desirable to use the exhaust for two or more 
purposes at the same time. Where all the exhaust is not wanted 
the back pressure valve can be set to let all or any part of it out. 

In some instances oil traps are used in connection with exhaust 
water heaters, the exhaust steam being run directly into the water, 
thereby saving the condensed water, but we do not deem this advis- 
able, as no oil trap will take out all traces of oil, and they need 
some attention and are liable to be neglected, when they will soon 
fill up and not work at all. 

Capacity of the Hot Water Tank Using the Exhaust Hot Water 
System for Creameries 

A creamery making 100,000 lbs. of butter in a year, the 
hot water tank should be 30 inches in diameter, 72 inches long, 
holding 200 gallons of water. Should contain 305 square feet of 
coil surface; 48 lineal feet of 2-inch pipe. 

Creamery making 150,000 lbs. of butter per year, the hot 
water tank should be 36 inches in diameter, 72 inches long, hold- 
ing 315 gallons of water. Should contain 425 square feet of coils, 
67 lineal feet of 2-inch pipe. 

Creamery making 250,000 lbs. of butter in a year, the hot 
water tank should be 42 inches in diameter, 96 inches long, holding 
525 gallons of water. Should contain 785 square feet of coils, 
125 lineal feet of 2-inch pipe. 

Creamery making 300,000 lbs. of butter in a year, the hot 
water tank should be 48 inches in diameter, 96 inches long, hold- 



52 Buttermakers Short Course 



ing 750 gallons of water. Should contain 103 square feet of 
coil, 1 1 2 lineal feet of 3-inch pipe. 

Cold Water Inlets on Tanks 

The cold water inlet on those tanks should be larger than the 
hot water outlets. 1 -inch outlet should have 1 j/^-inch inlet; 1 J/J -inch 
outlet should have 2-inch inlet; 1 ]/2-inch outlet should have 2 J^-inch 
inlet; 2-inch outlet should have 3-inch inlet. This is for the purpose 
of keeping pressure on hot water tank. 

Advantages of the Exhaust Water Heater 

This exhaust water heater is a practical addition to the 
creamery equipment. 

It furnishes abundant clean hot water for all purposes. 

The water can be piped to every place in the creamery where 
hot water is wanted. 

It is automatic and needs no attention and is ready at all times. 

In an average creamery it will pay for itself in a year. 

The time and labor saved is worth its entire cost of installation. 

A large amount of impurities will be taken out of the water 
before it goes into the boiler. 

It is cheap to construct and easy to take care of. 

It is a handy reservoir to use when cleaning and refilling boiler. 

It saves and relieves strain on the boiler to use warm water 
instead of cold water. 

The feed pump in connection with the exhaust heater can be 
adjusted to give a steady water level in the boiler during the entire 
run with but little attention. 

It will last a lifetime. 

It is simple to clean. 

The time for cleaning depends on the water used and once a 
year would ordinarily be sufficient. 

The engine uses less than 1 per cent of the heat value in live 
steam. Why not utilize some of the remaining 90 per cent that 
is worse than wasted? 



Buttermakers Short Course 53 



CHAPTER VI 
Testing Dairy Products for Butter Fat 

Testing Cream, Milk or Cheese 

To test cream : Carefully weigh up 1 8 grams of cream ; then 
add enough sulphuric acid with a specific gravity of 182,183 tem- 
perature of 60° Fah. until contents in bottles show a coffee brown; 
place in tester; run for 5 minutes at proper speed; then add 
water at temperature of 1 60° Fah. containing no lime or alkali, 
until fat flows up to zero mark. Place in the tester; run 5 
minutes; then add water, temperature 145, until fat floats up in neck 
of bottle above zero mark; place in tester; run 2 minutes; then place 
in water at temperature of 145° Fah.; and after a few minutes, read. 

To test milk: Carefully measure 17.6 c.c. milk in test bot- 
tles; add sulphuric acid; shake; add amount of acid until ingredients 
turn coffee brown ; place in tester run at proper speed 5 minutes ; 
add hot water at 150° Fah, which does not contain lime, alkali, 
or any foreign matters, until fat rises to zero mark; place in machine; 
run 4 minutes; fill with water, temperature 145, until fat rises above 
zero mark; run 3 minutes; then place in water at temperature 145° 
Fah. for 2 minutes; then read. 

To test buttermilk: Carefully measure 17,6 c.c. buttermilk 
in skim-milk bottle; then add enough acid to dissolve solids; then 
add enough to get color of coffee brown ; place in tester ; run 1 
minutes; fill up to neck with water at 170° Fah.; run 8 minutes 
then add hot water at 170° Fah.; run 5 minutes; place in hot 
water at temperature of 160° Fah. for 5 minutes; then read. (Figs. 
18Aand 18B.) 

Skimmed milk is tested the same as buttermilk, 



54 Buttermakers Short Course 




Fig. 18A. Facile Babcock Tester 
Manufactured by D. H. Bur- 
rell Company, Little Falls, 
N. Y. 



Fig. 18B. Wizard Babcock 
Tester Manufactured by 
Creamery Package Mfg. Co., 
Chicago, 111. 



To test cheese : For testing cheese, weigh up 1 8 grams of 
cheese; add sulphuric acid until curd is dissolved and shows a 
brown color (dark brown) ; then proceed as in testing milk. 

Causes of Defects in Tests 

Running tester too slow. 

Sour lumpy cream. 

Too much acid. 

Too strong acid. 

Too weak acid. 

Reading test too cold. 

Reading test too hot. 

Not thoroughly mixing sample before testing. 

Not taking a proportionate sample. 



Buttermakers Short Course 55 



Speed of Babcock Testers 

Diameter R. P. M. 

10 inches . , 1,074 

12 inches 980 

1 4 inches 909 

1 6 inches 884 

1 8 inches 800 

20 inches 759 

22 inches 724 

24 inches 650 

Temperatures of Cream 

Temperatures of acid and temperatures of cream should be 
the same or nearly the same, about 70° to 80° Fah. 

To Test Lumpy Cream 

Add one-fourth stick of caustic soda. Put this in sample 
of sour cream and stir until lumps dissolve. 

To find number of pounds butterfat in milk or cream, multiply 
the pounds of milk or cream by percentage as shown by test and 
divide by 1 00. 



56 Buttermafyers Short Course 



CHAPTER VII 

Neutralizing Cream for Buttermaking 

This is done by adding lime water to the cream to be pas- 
teurized when received with high acid (sour). Must be done 
before pasteurizing. It is necessary that cream should contain .25 
of 1 per cent to .3 of 1 per cent so as to prevent the casein from 
becoming separated from the butter fat, causing it to whey off or 
turning into cheese while being heated. 

To Neutralize 

It is necessary to know the percentage of acid cream contains 
that the ratio of lime water can be figured in order to neutralize 
the acid. The danger point of coagulation, and when it will separate 
is at a temperature from 78 to 115° Fah. After it is above 120° 
Fah. there is no danger. The flash pasteurizer is preferable in using 
this kind of cream. 

Heating to 110° Fah. and holding for several minutes also 
prevents coagulation of the casein. This is necessary especially 
when sour and sweet cream are mixed together before pasteurizing. 

Maying Neutralizer Solution. 

Use 1 lbs. of lime, 1 lbs. of soda ash, and 30 gallons of 
distilled water; mix together 20 hours before using. 

After mixing neutralizer place in refrigerator, mix in a clean 
wooden keg or barrel, and stir up well before using. 

Percentage of Lime Water to Use 

Neutralize in proportion to fat content and percentage of 
acid in cream. 

Three hundred gallons of cream testing 20 per cent butterfat, 
containing .6 of 1 per cent of acid, will require 4 quarts of lime 



Buttermafyers Short Course 57 



water; the percentage of acid should show .28 of 1 per cent when 
ready to pasteurize. 

Three hundred gallons of cream testing 25 per cent of butter- 
fat, containing .6 of 1 per cent of acid, will require 3 quarts of 
lime water, and should show .27 of 1 per cent acid when ready to 
pasteurize. 

Four hundred gallons of cream, containing .7 of 1 per cent 
of acid, will require 5 quarts of lime water, with butterfat test of 
20 per cent; should show .28 of 1 per cent when ready to pas- 
teurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 20 per cent butterfat, 
containing .8 of 1 percent acid, will require AYl quarts of lime 
water, and should show .28 of 1 per cent of acid when ready to 
pasteurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 20 per cent butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent of acid, will require 4 quarts of lime 
water, and should show .28 of 1 per cent of acid when ready to 
pasteurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 30 per cent of butterfat, 
containing .8 of 1 per cent, will require 3 (quarts of lime water, and 
should contain .31 of 1 per cent when ready to pasteurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 30 per cent of butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent acid, will require 2Yi quarts of lime 
water, and should contain .31 of 1 per cent when ready to pasteurize. 

Three hundred gallons of crearn testing 25 per cent butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent, will require AYi quarts lime water, 
and should show .3 of 1 per cent when ready to pasteurize. 

Three hundred gallons of cream testing 25 per cent butterfat, 
containing .8 of 1 per cent, will require 5 quarts of lime water, 
and should show .3 of 1 per cent acid when ready to pasteurize. 

Four hundred gallons of cream testing 25 per cent butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent acid, will require 6 quarts of lime water, 
and should show .3 of 1 per cent acid when ready to pasteurize. 



58 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Four hundred gallons of creat testing 25 per cent of butterfat, 
containing .8 of 1 per cent, will require 6 quarts of lime water, 
and should show .3 of 1 per cent acid when ready to pasteurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 40 per cent of butterfat, 
containing .8 of 1 per cent acid, will require 3 quarts of lime water, 
and should show .36 of 1 per cent acid when ready to pasteurize. 

Two hundred gallons of cream testing 40 per cent butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent acid, will require 2 Yl quarts of lime 
water, and should show .36 of 1 per cent when ready to pasteurize. 

Three hundred gallons of cream testing 40 per cent butterfat, 
containing .7 of 1 per cent acid, will require 3 quarts of lime 
water, and should show .36 of 1 per cent when ready to pasteurize. 

In Neutralizing Cream the Main Features are: 

The percentage of fat in the cream. 

The age of the cream. 

The percentage of acidity in cream. 

Whether sweet cream is mixed with sour cream. 

Temperatures to be pasteurized. 

Kind of pasteurizer used. 

The safe way is to add neutralizer to cream, watching very 
closely at temperatures from 80° Fah. to 120° Fah. Should 
there be any signs of casein coagulating, add more neutralizer. 

The richer the cream is in butterfat, the less neutralizer to be 
used. 

This table shows percentage of acid cream should contain 
when ready to pasteurize in proportion to butterfat content: 
Cream testing 45% butterfat acidity .36 



44 (i 


40% 


44 44 


.32 


it it 


35% 


44 44 


.30 


«« M 


30% 


44 44 


.28 


4k 4 4 


25% 


44 44 


.28 


(4 tt 


20% 


44 44 


.26 


4 4 4 4 


18% 


44 44 


.20 


Table No. 


1. Neutralizing C 


^REAH 



Buttermakers Short Course 59 



Effects of Using Too Much Neutralizer 

Precaution should be exercised in neutralizing cream for butter- 
making. Where too much neutralizer has been used in the cream, 
the buttermilk will whey off and become separated from the caseine 
or curd content. The butter will be dry in appearance, gummy 
and sticky and the salt will not dissolve. This is often the direct 
cause of blotchy, streaked or mottled butter. Salt should be wet 
and thoroughly worked into the butter uniformly. Such butter 
often contains too high a percentage of moisture and it is almost 
impossible to work the moisture out. This is true when a large 
percentage of soda ash is used for neutralizing and the cream is 
blowed. 

Whenever pasteurizing can be done without the use of neu- 
tralizes it is much better, as neutralization does not improve butter 
and often does harm to the flavor, especially when too much is used. 



60 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER VIII 

Cream Blowing 

This process is used for the purpose of eliminating bad odors 
and off flavors and also to reduce the high acidity and improve the 
keeping quality of the butter. 

The Process 

The process is to blow air through pipes connected to tanks 
or drums filled with water to treat the air by expanding it in fine 
jets through tanks of pure water, then direct into the cream while 
pasteurizing. Where high acid cream is used it is necessary to 
neutralize, but not to as low a degree of acidity as when the blower 
is not used. 

It is necessary that the air is cooled to a temperature of 70° 
Fah. or lower during the blowing process, as when the air is of a 
higher temperature it has a tendency to produce spongy, savy and 
mealy butter. It is also very essential that the cream should not be 
blown at a temperature of over 130° Fah., as this also produces a 
mealy body. The process used with the most success is to neutralize 
the acid in the cream to a degree low enough so as to prevent coagula- 
tion of casein. (See Table No. 1.) When the temperature is 
raised to 70° Fah. turn blower on and blow until temperature 
reaches 130° Fah., then turn off and continue heating the cream 
until it reaches a temperature of 1 60° Fah. or 1 70° Fah. A good 
way is to add a portion of sweet milk after the cream has been 
pasteurized, blown, and cooled to a ripening temperature. 

The Advantages of this System Are: 

It cleans the cream, drives off the bad odors and flavors; added 



Butter makers Short Course 61 




Sinclair Oxidizer and Purifier. Apparatus 
Used in Blowing Cream. Manufactured by Clifford 
L. Niles Co., Anamosa, la. 

Fig. 19. 



to the keeping quality of the butter, reduces the acidity of the cream 
when pasteurizing, improves the butter, especially when aged or 
high acid cream is used. 

The mechanical equipment used in this process is manufactured 
by the Clifford L. Niles Company, Anamosa, Iowa, manufacturers 
of the Sinclair Cream Purifier and Oxidizer. (Fig. 19.) 



62 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER IX 

Pasteurization of Cream for Buttermaking 

By pasteurization we aim to kill the lactic acid producing 
bacteria and as many other kinds of bacterial life as come within 
the thermal death point of the range of heat applied. 

By destroying all abnormal fermentations and disease producing 
germs the milk or cream is rendered comparatively free from germ 
life, and when in this condition the cream is in a pure state and the 
best possible condition for home consumption or buttermaking. 

Pasteurization for buttermaking is heating the cream. By this 
process it leaves it in a clean condition and leaves the germ life to be 
killed and the spores that still live are in a dormant condition, and 
when the cream is inoculated with a pure lactic acid starter it 
produces a pure desirable acid and fine flavor and keeping quality of 
butter. It gives the buttermaker control of the ripening process and 
improves every kind of cream in flavor for buttermaking. 

Pasteurization is like the farmer getting his seed bed in condi- 
tion to sow the seed. He cleans his ground so he can sow the seed, 
and reap a crop. This is true in pasteurizing the cream. We clean 
the cream, and by the addition of a pure culture added to the cream 
is like the farmer sowing the seed. It grows and produces the crop. 
It is absolutely necessary to pasteurize the cream when it is received 
from several different sources, in order to produce a uniform quality 
of butter. 

Effect of Casein 

Pasteurization softens the casein, and changes from a rubbery 
condition so it becomes brittle, and when the cream is ripened the 
butterfat globules will separate from the casein in the churning 



Buttermakers Short Course 63 



process. Pasteurized cream will not swell as much as unpasteurized 
cream in the drum while being churned. It also produces a butter 
that is easy to incorporate moisture in and such butter containing the 
legal amount of moisture will be of a firm body and apparently dry. 



Churnability of Cream 

Pasteurized cream will churn at a much lower temperature than 
cream unpasteurized, as in pasteurizing we drive off all gases and 
fermentations and produce a valvet like smooth cream which churns 
ragged butter granules. This process also improves the texture of 
the butter and gives it a nice smooth body. 




Fig. 20. Intermittent Pasteurizer, Cooler and Ripener Manufactured by 
Minnetonna Co., Owatonna, Minn. 



Temperatures to be Used in Pasteurization 

Intermittent pasteurization. (Fig. 20.) The temperatures 
should be from 145° Fah. to 150° Fah. Never over 150° Fah. 
In this process the temperature should be held from ten to twenty 



64 Buttermakcrs Short Course 



minutes after being heated to 145 or 150° Fah. The temperature 
should be raised as fast as possible within a radius of 25 minutes. 
The cooling process in cooling the cream should be done as fast as 
possible, within 45 minutes, in order to get the best results. 

Flash Pasteurization 

In flash pasteurizing, is to heat to 170° Fah. or 180° Fah., 
then cool at once. This method is not considered as thorough as the 
intermittent process, especially for the city milk, also for butter- 
making. It leaves the cream in a thin condition and the casein does 
not coagulate while ripening, therefore it has not the churn- 
ability as the intermittent process. The advantage of flash pasteuriza- 
tion is that it can be best adapted to large plants where sour cream 
is received, as it takes up less floor space. When this method is used 
the cream should be heated twice. First to 160° Fah., the second 
time from 1 70° Fah. to 180° Fah. Then it should be cooled 
to a ripening temperature as soon as possible. Flash pasteurized 
cream not properly handled shows much more loss of butterfat in 
the buttermilk than unpasteurized cream, or pasteurized sweet cream. 
The losses are as high as .3 of 1 % to .6 of 1 % in the buttermilk. 

In many instances pasteurization has been the salvation of the 
creamery business, as it has overcome the poor flavors and reduces 
the acidity of the cream that is termed "off" in flavor to a good 
desirable condition for buttermaking. 

Pasteurization eliminates the gases and reduces the swelling 
of the cream that takes place in the churning process. It also reduces 
the volume of the cream by expelling the air, and does away with 
the foam, as cream properly pasteurized will not contain any foam. 

Cost of Pasteurizing Cream 

The cost of pasteurizing cream for buttermaking depends upon 
the supply of water, the medium of heat, how heat is applied and 
the time it requires. 



Buttermal?ers Short Course 65 



The first cost is fuel. When cream is pasteurized in vats using 
exhaust steam the expense is the cost of running the engine. The 
second cost is labor, the time required to cool the cream, amount of 
water required, and the cost to pump the water. The third cost is 
the investment in the machinery, also the upkeep of the machines. 
The total cost for a creamery making 200,000 lbs. of butter a year 
is approximately about one-half cent per pound of butter 
manufactured. 

Profit in Pasteurizing 

The most profit of any branch of the creamery industry is in 
pasteurizing the cream for buttermaking, as it insures a very uniform 
piece of butter, improves the body and flavor, and butter made from 
properly pasteurized cream will score an average from one to five 
points higher than butter made from unpasteurized cream. This 
will raise the price from one to three cents per pound of butter. 

The Regenerative Pasteurizer 

One of the modern pasteurizing units is termed the * 'regenerative 
pasteurizer." The complete unit consists of three machines, i. e., 
continuous pasteurizing, sanitary regenerative and continuous and 
closed cooler. (Fig. 21.) 

This pasteurizer and cooler consists of a revolving drum placed 
inside of a stationary cylinder, having a double jacket, and operating 
on a large hollow shaft of special construction. The cream or milk 
being pasteurized or cooled, as the case may be, is forced between 
the drum surface and outer jacket in a thin film, which film is heated 
or cooled uniformly as the case may be. The principal feature is 
that this equipment treats the liquid to the high temperature neces- 
sary and then brings it back to a safe temperature without exposing 
the product to the air during the high temperature, thus oxidation 
of the butterfat is minimized with this type of equipment. 



66 Buttermakers Short Course 




Fig. 21. Regenerative Pasteurizer and Cooler, Manufactured by Jensen 
Creamery Machinery Co., Long Island City, N. Y. 



Facts That Apply to Pasteurization 

Pasteurizing must be done right to be of any value. 

The object of pasteurization is to make a more desirable and 
uniform product of better keeping quality. 

Pasteurizing helps to make it possible to produce good butter 
from a poorer raw material. 

Good results from pasteurization cannot be secured under un- 
favorable conditions. 

Thin cream reduces the chances of successful pasteurization. 



Buttermakers Short Course 67 



Pasteurization will not be successful without the necessary equip- 
ment and ample capacity. 

Sufficient steam and power and a liberal supply of cold water 
are essential factors to be considered. 

Pasteurization will do all that is claimed for it if it is properly 
applied. 

A skilled buttermaker is necessary for successful pasteurization. 

Some regularity in the method of cream delivery is essential. 

Uniform temperatures are important. 

A forewarmer should always be used with the flash method of 
pasteurization. 

The proper speed of the ripener coil is important in vat pas- 
teurization. Speed of coil from 35 to 45 revolutions per minute. 

Rapid heating and cooling increases the efficiency of pasteuriza- 
tion and lessens the danger of curdling or churning in vat. 

Large steam and water connections increase heating and cooling 
capacity. 

Use of exhaust steam reduces the cost of pasteurization. (Fig. 
22.) 

All sweet or all sour cream may be pasteurized without 
difficulty. 

Curdling is due to pasteurizing sweet cream and sour cream 
without mixing or neutralizing the acidity. 

Sweet and sour cream should be pasteurized separately when 
possible. 

The cost of pasteurization is small when compared with the 
benefit derived. 

Pasteurized cream should always be churned at a lower tem- 
perature than raw cream, from 6 to 10° Fah. lower. 

Pasteurized cream should be held at a low temperature for 
some time before churning, usually from 4 to 1 2 hours. 



68 Buttermakers Short Course 



I 



Exhaust Steam Heater 
12 



a 



in 



6 



-* » 1 1 1 1 1 JL 



^///////^///x///////^/////////////////////y////////////y/////////////////y/y//A 



Fig. 22. Exhaust Steam Heater Adaptable to Any 
Creamery Vat Pasteurization. 

It is used for heating the water to be circulated 
through the coils of the pasteurizer for heating the 
cream. 



1 — Pipe from engine 
2 — 2-inch ell 
3 — 2-inch nipple 
4 — 2-inch union 
5 — 2-inch nipple 
6 — 2-inch tee 



7 — 2-inch perforated pipe 
8 — 2-inch perforated pipe 
9 — 2-inch cap 

10 — 2-inch cap 

11 — Overflow 

12 — Tank 



Avoid high ripening whether pasteurized or raw cream is 
handled. Never have over .58 to .6 of 1 % of acid. 

A pasteurizer will not run itself; it requires constant attention. 

Pasteurization increases the work in a creamery, and the neces- 
sary help should be furnished. 



ButtermaJ^ers Short Course 69 



CHAPTER X 

Commercial Starters 
Starter Used for Ripening Cream 

Commercial starter is made by taking a portion of the milk 
and pasteurizing to a temperature of 1 70° Fah. to 1 80° Fah. Then 
cooling down to a temperature of 85° Fah. and adding to this 
milk a pure culture; then set at this temperature to grow the lactic 
acid bacteria until the milk becomes coagulated within a reasonable 
length of time, usually 12 to 18 hours. This is called the first 
propagation, and is called the "mother starter." The second propa- 
gation is made by using one quart of sweet pasteurized milk with a 
glass stopper bottle and inoculating this milk with 50 c.c. of the 
starter from the first propagation, and set at a temperature of 78° 
Fah. until this coagulates. The third propagation is made by 
using one quart of sweet pasteurized milk and adding 50 c.c. of 
starter to milk from the second propagation, and set at a tempera- 
ture of 70° Fah. until it coagulates. 

Each propagation is carried out in this way. 
Temperatures at which to ripen starter: 

1st setting 85° Fah. 

2nd " 80° Fah. 

3rd " 75° Fah. 

4th " 70° Fah. 

5th " 68° Fah. 

6th " 68° Fah. 

Time it usually takes to ripen starter: 

1 st setting 14 to 16 hours 

2nd " 12 to 14 " 

3rd " 12 to 13 " 

4th " 10 to 12 M 

5th "' 10 to 11 " 



70 Buttermakers Short Course 



The large starter that is used to put into the cream is made by 
heating milk up to 1 70° to 180° Fah. and holding 8 to 1 minutes 
at this temperature, then cool down to 50° Fah. and hold until ready 
to set. When ready to set, heat up to 68° Fah. in the summer and 
from 70° to 80° Fah. in the winter, and add the "mother starter" 
and let it set until ripe, which will be when it contains from .5 to .7 
of 1% of acid. (Figs. 23-A and 23-B.) 

What to Do to Crow Commercial Starter 

Be absolutely clean, careful and particular. Use only pure 
lactic acid culture. Use only clean, wholesome sweet morning's milk 
from fresh milk cows. 

Pasteurize mother starter milk separate from large can. Use 
nothing but well tinned cans or glassware. 

Always sterilize everything that comes in contact with starter 
milk. Maintain even temperature when ripening starter or startoline. 
Maintain a temperature of 50° Fah. or below after ripening starter 
until it is to be used. Be sure to keep close watch on starter at all 
times. A buttermaker's success is how he attends to the little things 
in connection with startermaking and buttermaking. 

What We Must Not Do in Growing Starter 

Do not overripen starter — never over .6% of acid. Do not 
burn milk in heating. Use boiling water, and not dry steam. 

Do not heat milk over 170° Fah. or 180° Fah.; 170° Fah. 
is high enough in pasteurizing. 

Do not use milk that is not clean, sweet and from healthy 
cows. 

Do not hold starter milk at a temperature higher than 46° 
Fah. to 50° Fah. until ready to ripen. 

Do not expose mother starter to light, only at times when it 
cannot be helped. 



Buttermakers Short Course 71 



Fig. 23A. Haugh- 
dahl Starter 
Can Manufac- 
tured by J. G. 
Cherry Co., 
Cedar Rapids, 
la. 





Fig. 23B. Minnetonna Starter Can, 
Manufactured by Minnetonna Com- 
pany, Owatonna, Minn. 



72 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Do not allow any flies in milk used for starter. 

Do not neglect the starter, as it takes constant study and 
attention. 

A buttermaker's failure comes from neglecting little things in 
connection with startermaking and buttermaking. 

Burnt Flavor in Starter 

There is a peculiar flavor in milk from herds fed on corn 
stalks, especially in corn cutting season, or when frozen grass is being 
eaten by cows. 

There appears on corn-cutting knives and feed cutters a sweetish 
substance from the juice in the corn. This has a sweetish peculiar 
smell, and taste is found in milk as it flows from the separator, or 
when heated in starter cans. Such flavor often shows up in the 
butter and is called burnt flavor. 

Point of Coagulation Varies Somewhat 

Percentage of acid at coagulation point: 

Jersey cow's milk will have .3 of 1 % at time of coagulation. 

Guernsey cow's milk will have .32 of 1% at time of 
coagulation. 

Holstein cow's milk will have .36 of 1 % at time of coagulation. 

Common breed cow's milk will have .22 to .28 of 1 % at time 
of coagulation. 

Amount of Starter to Use in Large Can 

One-fourth pint mother starter to each 1 00 lbs. of milk to be 
ripened for starter. This should ripen in 1 to 14 hours. Acidity 
of mother starter should never be over .7 of 1 % or under .5 of 1 %. 

Starter for ripening cream should contain from .5 of 1 % to 
.6 of 1 % to get the best results. This is from large can to be 
added to cream. 



Buttermakers Short Course 73 



Body should be smooth and velvety, good and clean. Flavor 
should be pronounced in acid and have a sweet, sour, desirable 
taste. 

Wheying off is caused by setting at too high temperature, and 
ripening too fast or where milk contains an abnormal amount of 
acid before pasteurizing. The milk should be the best obtainable 
for mother starter. 

Bitter starter is caused by using old mother starter when the 
lactic acid germ is dead or using old, unclean milk, sometimes caused 
from ripening too slow. 

Sweet starter is caused by not warming milk to proper tempera- 
ture, using old culture and not using enough mother starter. 

Vinegar flavor is caused by overripening, leaving at high tem- 
perature when ripened; also using mother starter containing too high 
percentage of acidity. 

After starter coagulates and begins to ripen, very particular care 
should be taken to prevent overripening as the fermentation of the 
milk multiplies fast and the lactic acid germ will attack milk sugar, 
producing high acid and overripe starter. The danger occurs after 
coagulation takes place at about .4 of 1 % of acid and .45 of 1 % of 
acid, depending on ingredients milk is composed of. 

Agitating Starter 

Starter^ should be stirred as soon as ripened or contains the 
proper amount of acid, and cooled to 50° Fah. or lower. 

Cooling starter starter cannot be injured by cooling after ripened. 
Mother starter can be packed in ice and frozen and no harm is 
done. When ripened mother starter should be kept at a tempera- 
ture of below 45° Fah. 

The proper utensils to make the mother starter in is a glass 
jar or bottle having glass stoppers; absolute cleanliness must be 
used in making starters. 



74 Buttermakers Short Course 



To Carry Starters 

A small portion of sweet milk can be added to the mother 
starter after .6 of 1 % of acid has been developed so as to prolong 
the life of the starter until ready to set again. Use the very best 
pasteurized sweet milk that can be obtained, and milk from fresh 
milch cows. 

Table of Temperatures to Use and Quantity of Milk 

Range of Temperature Amount of Mother 

Quantity of Milk Winter Summer Starter or Startoline 

20 gallons 68-70 62-67 Y 2 to 2 qts. 

30 " 68-73 63-67 |/ 2 to 2J/ 2 

40 " 68-73 63-68 1 to 5 

60 " 68-71 64-68 1|/ 2 to 7/ 2 

80 " 68-70 66-66 4 to 10 

1 00 " 68-70 66-68 4 to 1 2j/ 2 

Milk perfectly sweet, heated to temperature of 170° Fah. 
held 1 minutes, then cooled to ripening temperature. — From 
"Modern Buttermaking," by Martin H. Meyer. 

Percentage 

To find the percentage of starter used, divide the pounds of 
cream into the pounds of starter. For example: 
1 quart of milk contains 950 c.c. 
25 c.c. mother starter to 1 quart of milk. 
25 c.c. divided by 950 c.c. equals .263% starter. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 75 



CHAPTER XI 

Testing Milk and Cream for Acidity 

The Acid Test 

To make the acid test pipette out 9 c.c. cream, then rinse, 
pipette into sample to be tested; add two drops of indicator, then 
draw from the burrette neutralizer until the sample turns a faint 
pink, then read the figures on the burrette, and this will give the 
per cent of acid in tenths. The figure 7 equals .7 of 1 % ; 68 equals 
.68 of 1 %, and so on according to the figures that indicated shown 
by the neutralizer. (Fig. 24.) If all the neutralizer were used it 
would indicate there was 1 % of acid in sample. 

The Constituents of Neutralizer 

Neutralizer contains sodium hydroxide; 40 grams of caustic 
soda dissolved in 1 000 c.c. of distilled water makes a normal 
solution ; . 1 normal solution is 4 grams of caustic soda dissolved in 
1 quart of water; 1 c.c. of .1 normal solution contains 1.004 grams 
of soda, and will neutralize 900 c.c. of lactic acid. 

The Constituents of Indicator 

Phenophtholin is made by dissolving 1 gram of the powder in 
100 c.c. of 50% alcohol. 

To Reduce Readings 

When more than 9 c.c. of the sample is used, multiply the 
reading on the burrette by .009, and divide by sample used. For 
example : 

Sample, 50 c.c. 

Reading on burrette, 40 c.c. 

Multiply by .009. 

Equals 360. 

Divided by 50 

Equals 4.32 of 1%. 



76 Butter makers Short Course 




Fig. 24. Acid Tester. 



Automatic Acidmeter for Reading Per Cent of Acidity Direct in 

Tenths, Using Tenth Normal Solution Manufactured by 

Wagner Glass Works. 



This automatic acidmeter is operated by squeezing the rubber 
bulb. This forces the air into bottom of bottle, and forces liquid 
into burrette. When burrette contains too much solution by open- 
ing the pinch cock the liquid will syphon back into bottle. By doing 
this there is not any of the liquid wasted. Every creamery should 
have an acid tester. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 77 



CHAPTER XII 
Cream Ripening 

Ripening Cream and Its Effect on Buttermafying 

In ripening cream we aim to develop the lactic acid and soften 
the curd content of the butter to a soluble condition in order that we 
can get an even separation between the butterfat globules and casein 
in the churning process. We also wish to develop lactic acid to 
produce a fine flavor, and add to the keeping qualities of the butter. 
Here lies the most scientific part of buttermaking. 

Ripening temperatures depend on butterfat content contained 
in cream. Cream containing a light percentage of butterfat will 
ripen at a lower temperature than cream being rich in butterfat. 

Cream obtained from cows during a late period of lactation 
requires much higher temperatures in ripening. Cream received from 
Jersey, Guernsey and Ayershire cows ripens slow and requires more 
careful attention. Any cream being high in stearin will ripen slower 
and require higher temperatures than cream high in olein, therefore 
great judgment must be used in this work. Olein and sterin are 
fats found in butterfat that influence the soluble condition of the 
cream. Where commercial starter is used, lower temperatures can 
be used and good results obtained. When no starter is used, usually 
the temperatures must be high. And this puts all the abnormal 
fermentations into action, and in ripening the cream causes a bitter 
flavor especially when low temperatures are used. 

Ripening Pasteurized Cream 

Pasteurized cream ripened without a starter makes a flat, greasy, 
undesirable quality of butter. Raw cream ripened without starter 



78 Butter makers Short Course 



produces a gasy fermentation, makes a coarse, undesirable flavor, and 
also has a tendency to deteriorate the flavor quickly, thus causing a 
poor keeping quality. 

Ripening Sweet Pasteurized Cream 

Ripening with a good commercial starter produces fine flavor, 
and keeping quality in a smooth body, fine texture, and a dry ap- 
pearance, free from a leaky body and brine pockets contained in the 
butter. It also insures the consumer against disease and makes a 
safe, sanitary product. 

Ripening Temperatures and Time Ripening 

The following results were obtained in experiments at the 
Elgin Creamery, Elgin, Minnesota, when this plant was operated by 
the authors of this book. 

Cream containing 40% fat, pasteurized, using 20% commercial 
starter, containing .7 of 1 % of acid, set at a temperature of 70° 
Fah., ripened in 5 hours, and contained .4 of 1 % of acid. 

Cream containing 30% of butterfat, pasteurized, using 20% 
commercial starter, containing .7 of 1% acid, set at a temperature 
of 70° Fah., ripened in 4 J/2 hours, and contained .5 of 1% of 
acid. 

Cream containing 25% of butterfat pasteurized, using 20% 
of commercial starter, containing .7 of 1% acid, set at a tempera- 
ture of 70° Fah., ripened in 3 hours, and contained .5 of 1 % of 
acid. 

Cream containing 18% of butterfat pasteurized, using 20% 
of commercial starter, containing .7 of 1 % of acid, set at a tempera- 
ture of 70° Fah., ripened in 3 hours, and contained .5 of 1 % of 
acid. 

Unpasteurized Cream 

Cream containing 40% of butterfat, using 20% commercial 



Buttermafyers Short Course 79 



starter, containing .7 of 1% of acid, set at a temperature of 70° 
Fah., ripened in 6 hours, and contained .4 of 1 % of acid. 

Cream containing 30% of butterfat, using 20% of com- 
mercial starter, containing .7 of 1% of acid, set at a temperature 
of 70° Fah., ripened in 5 hours, and contained .5 of 1 % of acid. 

Cream containing 25% of butterfat, using 20% of com- 
mercial starter, containing .7 of 1% of acid, set at a temperature 
of 70° Fah., ripened in 4 hours, and contained .5 of 1 % of acid. 

This cream was all sweet cream. 

Unpasteurized cream containing 28 to 30% of fat, using no 
starter, will ripen at a temperature of 70° Fah. in 7 to 1 hours. 

Unpasteurized cream containing 22 to 25% of butterfat, 
using no starter, will ripen at a temperature of 70° Fah. in 6 to 8 
hours. 

Effects of Slow Ripening 

Slow ripening is very detrimental in making good butter, as 
the abnormal fermentations produce a certain percentage of bacteria 
and high acid, causing rancid flavor in the butter. The proper tem- 
perature for ripening cream where no starter is used is at a tempera- 
ture of 70° Fah. 

The proper temperature to ripen cream where starter is used 
ranges from 65 to 72° Fah. The percentage of starter to use in 
ripening cream depends on the fat content contained in the cream. 
From 10% to 20%. Never over 20% and not under 10%. 

Hon> to Figure Percentage of Starter Used 

For example: 400 gallons of cream containing 30 gallons 
of starter. What per cent of starter? 400 gallons of cream, 8 
lbs. to 1 gallon, equals 3,200 lbs. of cream; 30 gallons of starter, 
8 lbs. to 1 gallon, equals 240 lbs. of starter; 240 divided by 3,200 
equals 7.5% of starter. 



80 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Fast Ripening of Cream 

Fast ripening, especially where good commercial starter is used, 
develops the tiny plant life which helps it to grow and become 
vigorous before any undesirable fermentation takes place. This 
produces a good, clean lactic acid which is so greatly sought in 
good buttermaking. 

Fast ripening indicates a good live and active starter, and pro- 
duces the purest and most desirable and highest scoring butter of 
smooth texture and perfect grain. 

Overcoming Undesirable Flavors 

Undesirable flavors can be overcome by using a good com- 
mercial starter, and lowering temperatures during ripening process. 
All cream should be cooled down to churning temperature and held 
from 4 to 1 hours before churning, so as to insure a good body. 

Percentage of Acid Cream Should Contain When Ready to Churn 

18% cream should contain .6 of 1% acid 
20% " " " .6 of 1% " 

25% " " " .55 of 1% M 

35% M " " .5 of 1% " 

40% " " " .4 of 1% " 

Table No. 2 
The richness of the cream in butterfat, the less per cent of 
acid can be developed, as there is less milk serum in the high testing 
cream. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 81 



CHAPTER XIII 
Flavors in Cream and Butter 



iroma 



Aroma in butter is the quality that is detected by smell only. 
Flavor in butter is found by tasting only. This should be remem- 
bered, as in the quality of butter aroma is not always a true 
indication of quality of flavor. 

Although in connection with the aroma the flavor can be very 
well judged in butter, as the quality of the aroma indicates very 
strongly the quality of the butter. In the aroma we find charac- 
teristics due to bacterial fermentations and chemical changes that 
come from overripe milk and cream held too long at ripening tem- 
peratures; not keeping utensils clean, allowing the milk or cream to 
be contaminated in any way, affects the aroma of the butter. In 
the flavor we find all defects in which the butter is made. Some 
are carelessness of the dairymen ; some of the creamery operators ; 
some of the main faults are old cream, unclean utensils, overripe high 
acid; the mixing of cold cream and warm cream together produces 
what is known as a fishy flavor. 

High-grade wholesome butter must be made out of clean, sweet 
cream or milk, frequently delivered to the creamery. There is no 
process that will purify or improve poor milk and cream that will 
bring it back to the pure state as if properly cared for. 

Unclean flavor in butter is due to unclean, unwholesome milk 
or cream, unsanitary conditions in the creamery, leaky vats, or 
starter cans, unsanitary milk pumps or conducting pipes, impure 
water, exposing butter after churning in an unsanitary refrigerator, 
packing in moldy tubs, using impure ice in the wash water or cream, 
poor ventilation or improper drainage of creamery. 



82 Buttermakers Short Course 



Curdy Flavors 

This is quite common in hot weather and is due to high acid, 
also pasteurizing very sour cream without neutralizing and over- 
churning high acid cream. 

Mottled Butter 

This defect comes by not having the salt evenly distributed in 
butter; salting too cold; not working enough; uneven temperature 
of butter in churn; overchurning ; high temperatures. 

To Overcome Unclean Flavors 

Use clean milk or cream; keep creamery sanitary and well 
ventilated ; prevent the use of leaky vats and starter cans ; unsanitary 
pipes and conductor pipes; clean pumps every day; sterilize every- 
thing that comes in contact with milk and cream ; keep the refrigerator 
clean and whitewashed; also sprinkle lime on floor to prevent mold. 

To Overcome Curdy Flavor 

Cool milk and cream to a low temperature, 46 to 48° Fah. ; 
reduce acid before pasteurizing; do not overchurn. The smaller the 
butter granules are when butter is churned the better, just large 
enough to get a good separation from the buttermilk is all that is 
necessary. Washing the butter with cold water and hardening up 
the granule will prevent curdy flavor. 

To Overcome Mottled Butter 

Wet the salt; have the temperature of the salt near the tem- 
perature of the butter; work the rolls in the churn in wash water to 
maintain an even temperature in butter throughout the churn; running 
cold water in one end of churn chills the butter granules in one end 
and leaves them softer in the other end. The difference between 
the temperature in the butter after being worked will be the cause of 



Buttermakers Short Course 83 



streaks and mottles, due to the fact that the salt dissolves slower in 
the cold butter than where it is warmer. Work thoroughly. The 
average buttermaker is afraid of overworking, and in many instances 
is not working the butter enough. 

To Overcome Fishy Flavor 

This flavor is very pronounced when butter is made from old, 
high acid overripe cream. It develops from keeping cream in un- 
sanitary and rusty cans where the sun can shine on them, heating 
them up. The chemical action on the acid coming in contact with 
the heated metal often produces fishy flavor. It has been found that 
salt being kept in warehouses where fish has been stored will carry 
a fishy flavor. It is also due to unsanitary conditions and often 
disappears after improvement is made in sanitation. 

Wood Flavor 

This flavor may be imparted by not soaking tubs properly or 
from a new churn not properly soaked, or from a leaky vat where 
wood surrounds the inner lining. (See how to soak new churn 
page 150.) 

Metallic Flavor 

This is very objectionable in butter and has come into existence 
the past few years. It is developed from several sources — the high 
acid in cream, old rusty cans allowed to stand in the sun where 
cream becomes heated, or kept in the heat during transportation, or 
sour cream pasteurized at high temperatures and held at pasteurizing 
temperatures too long, or pasteurized in pasteurizers or vats poorly 
tinned. 

Weak Bodied or Slushy Butter 

This is caused by churning cream too warm, not holding it 
at a temperature long enough after being pasteurized or ripened, or 



84 Buttermakers Short Course 



at a low enough temperature to harden butterfat globules. Also 
overchurning will show this defect in butter. Cream should be held 
from 5 to 7 hours at a temperature low enough to harden butterfat 
globules, 46 to 50° Fah. in the summer and 52 to 56° Fah. in the 
winter. The shorter time the cream is held before churning the 
lower should be the temperature held at. High temperatures used 
in washing butter is also instrumental in making weak bodied or 
slushy butter. The remedy is easily overcome and is in the power 
of every creamery operator. It is mostly due to neglect, or not 
knowing how to remedy it, generally by men who will not listen 
to anyone of experience. 



Butter makers Short Course 85 



CHAPTER XIV 

Churning of Cream 

Cream should be churned at a temperature so as to have the 
butter churned from 35 minutes to 1 hour. Any longer is too long 
and any less is too quickly. The granules should be ragged (not 
round) and gathered enough to give a good separation from the 
buttermilk. 

The butterfat globules must be subjected to a certain amount 
of concussion. This solidifies the fat globules. These globules 
are in a liquid or semi-liquid state in the cream, and through the 
churning process they are separated from the casein that encloses 
them and formed into butter granules. 

As soon as they are formed into granules they multiply fast 
in size and danger of overchurning occurs. This is one thing that 
is often neglected in buttermaking that plays an important part. 

Washing the Butter 

There seems to be quite a difference in opinion as to washing 
or rinsing butter. But through all experiments made the use of cold 
water ranging in temperature from 42 to 54° Fah. or even 56° Fah. 
has proven the most satisfactory. The amount of water to be used 
depends on the amount of butter in churn and the temperature and 
condition of the granules of the butter. Usually enough water in 
first washing to float butter up to rolls of churn and remove all the 
surplus buttermilk. 

Number of Revolutions to Run Drum 

Churn should be run from 8 to 1 2 revolutions on slow or 
working gear (with worker out of working gear). This water 



86 Buttermakers Short Course 



should be drawn off and about 1 j/2 to 3 barrels at a temperature of 
46° Fah. to 48° Fah. in summer and 50° Fah. to 58° Fah. in 
winter added; the rolls put into gear and worked from 6 to 12 
revolutions of the drum. This water should be drained through the 
doors by loosening three buttons on door and leaving one closed to 
prevent butter from dropping out of churn. 

Working the butter in water insures an even temperature 
throughout the butter, also controls the moisture by working into 
the butter (not mixing it) . It also expels the loose, surplus moisture, 
thus saving the amount of salt used. It also gives the operator abso- 
lute control of the moisture content of the butter. This is important 
and very necessary. 

Salting 

Salt should be wet. Wet enough so it will float in a butter 
tub, the dirt and ingredients other than salt will float, and in this 
way salt is cleaned and the dirt and impurities washed out. Be 
sure to pour off top before using. 

Trough Butter 

The roll of butter should be split open with butter ladle, the 
salt inserted inside roll of butter, pulling together on top. By doing 
this we prevent the salt from adhering to the drum of the churn 
and therefore save the salt. 

Working 

Butter should be worked until the salt is dissolved and evenly 
distributed; also until butter contains right amount of moisture, with 
a perfect body and grain. When butter is properly worked it 
will pull apart like a piece of broken steel, long grained, and have 
a nice smooth appearance. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 87 



Temperature of Butter When Removed from Churn 

Butter should not be over a temperature of 50° Fah. to 52° 
Fah. when finished during the summer months and a temperature of 
56° Fah. to 60° Fah. in the winter months. 

Cooling Salt 

During summer when weather is hot, salt may be cooled with 
ice as low as 40° Fah. and good results obtained. Care must be 
taken to thoroughly work the butter. 

Warming Salt 

During winter months salt can be warmed up to 75° Fah. 
and good results obtained. Should butter be too cold and hard the 
salt can be warmed. More salt can be incorporated when the salt 
is warmed and there is less danger of having gritty butter. 

Ripeness of Cream 

Cream should contain between .4 and .6 of 1 % of acid in 
order to churn out clean from the buttermilk and also develop a 
good flavor. 

Time Churning 

Cream should churn in one hour or probably less, depending 
on size of churning and temperatures used. 

Size of Butter Granules 

Butter granules should be the size of peas or even as large 
as corn; should be ragged, not hard or round. It is almost im- 
possible to incorporate moisture when we have round granules. 

Temperatures of Wash Water 

The temperature of wash water should be from 6 to 10° Fah. 
colder than the buttermilk. 



88 Buttermakers Short Course 



Amount of Wash Water to Use 

About the same amount as there is buttermilk. Churn should 
be run on the slow gear 8 to 1 revolutions of the drum. 

Second Wash Water 

Usually from 1 J/2 to 2 barrels of water. Water should be 
of a temperature of 8 to 10° Fah. below the temperature of the 
butter. The machine should be put into working gear and work 
butter from 4 to 1 revolutions of drum in this water, then draw 
off all surplus water through the doors. This is very particular, as 
all surplus water left in the churn will have a tendency to wash 
out salt. 

Butter 

A fatty substance obtained from cream or milk; consists of 
butterfat oil, fat globules, water, salt, curd or casein, color and 
solids. 

First discovered by the Egyptians carrying milk in skin sacks 
and the shaking of sacks on the camels' backs churned the milk, thus 
the human race discovered through this source the secret of churning 
butter from milk. 

Where Buttermaking Begins 

The kind of feed fed cow. 

The cow's health. 

The condition in which she is kept. 

Kind of water she gets to drink. 

The kind of barn she is kept in. 

The kind of ventilation in barn. 

Cleanliness of barn. 

Cleanliness and condition of cow. 

Time of lactation — cows milked too long is very bad. 

Salting irregular. 



Buttermakers Short Course 89 



Dairyman is responsible for all the cow does, how milk is 
handled, how milked, strained, separated and cooled, and kept 
from injurious odors, such as barn taint, silo and anything that 
contaminates milk or cream, proper and frequent delivery to creamery, 
washing separator every time used, washing cans, using clean cans 
not rusty or open in seams, not mixing warm milk with cold, etc. 

Silage Flavor 

This flavor is very pronounced in milk or cream when the silage 
is fed during milking time or when milk or cream is left in barns so 
it becomes contaminated with this odor. The feeding of silage will 
not effect the cream or milk unless same is exposed in barns where 
silage is fed, as it will not develop any odor through cows' systems. 
And in every instance the dairyman is wholly to blame when milk or 
cream contains this odor. 



90 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER XV 

Salting Butter and Salt Test 
Salting Butter 

This should be gauged according to the market where the 
butter is sold and also the demand of the consumer; different markets 
vary in the amount of salt necessary to satisfy the trade. Markets 
along the sea coast demand a very light salted butter. This is due 
to the air containing a certain amount of salt, and people do not 
require the amount of salt in foodstuffs that is generally used in 
sections farther away from the salt water. 

Horv to Incorporate Salt with the Least Possible Waste 

First: Drain the water off butter before salting. 

Second: Work through the rolls before adding salt to butter. 

Third: Heat the salt to a few degrees higher temperature 
than butter. 

Fourth: Add the salt inside of the butter to prevent from 
sticking to the drum of the churn. 

Fifth: Salt at intervals in working butter. As high as 5% 
of salt can be incorporated into the butter without leaving it gritty 
with a loss ranging around 10% when properly done. 

Salt Test 

To make a salt test in butter, carefully weigh up 1 grams 
butter, transfer into flask, using water at a temperature of 1 50° Fah. ; 
fill up to mark on flask and shake vigorously, then pipette it out 
with pipette into beaker, using 25 c.c. ; use 2 drops of potassium 
chromate for an indicator, then draw solution out of the burette, 



Buttermakers Short Course 91 




Fig. 25. Salt Test Apparatus. 

adding to the sample until it becomes a permanent brown, then read 
figures on burette, and this will give percentage of salt content 
of butter. (Fig. 25.) 

Formula of Ingredients Used in Salt Test 

Neutralizer nitrate of silver neutralizer, 2.906 grams nitrate of 
silver added to 2000 c.c. distilled water, make a tenth normal 
solution. 

Indicator 

Three ounces of potassium chromate dissolved in 1 00 c.c. 
distilled water. 

Caution: Do not expose the nitrate of silver to the light, as 
it deteriorates and loses its strength. Keep nitrate of silver in colored 
bottle. , 



92 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER XVI 

Moisture in Butter and Moisture Test 
Incorporating Moisture 

Incorporating moisture in butter is accomplished in different 
ways, such as raising temperatures, working butterworker rolls, and 
by adding water during time butter is worked. (Fig. 26.) 

Controlling Moisture 

The proper method is to first begin in the ripening of the cream, 
the condition of the casein will designate the size, structure and 
shape of the butter granules. Cream not properly ripened will 
churn a round granule, while cream properly ripened will churn a 
ragged granule, the latter being more susceptible to control of 
moisture. 

Working moisture in butter is accomplished by lowering tem- 
perature and working churn rolls in second rinse water several revolu- 
tions of the drum. Wetting salt and working butter after salt is 
added is also a good moisture working method. Butter properly 
worked can obtain a proper amount of water and still retain perfect 
body and texture and not be leaky in body and constituting an 
apparent dry appearance. 

How to Incorporate Moisture in Butter 

First: Churning temperature depends upon conditions of the 
cream. Also per cent of butterfat contained in the cream. 

Second: The amount of cream to be churned. 

Third: Amount of fat designates condition of cream. Rich 
cream can be churned colder and much easier than cream containing 
Jight per cent of butterfat. 



Buttermakers Short Course 93 




Fig. 26. Modern Moisture Testing Outfits. 



Necessity of Controlling Moisture in Butter 

It is absolutely necessary that butter should contain 16% of 
moisture in order to have the salt dissolved and evenly distributed 
throughout the butter. Salt and moisture becoming a brine enhances 
the keeping quality of the butter. It is absolutely impossible to 
make butter with an even color were it not for the moisture contained 
therein to dissolve the salt. Butter with 1 6% moisture properly 
controlled will have a perfect body and texture. Pull a full trier 
from the tub and not show excess moisture or be weak bodied or 
slushy in any way when moisture is properly controlled. 



94 Buttermakers Short Course 



Moisture Test 

To make moisture test, carefully weigh up 1 grams of butter, 
then evaporate moisture and re-weigh sample. The amount 
evaporated is per cent of moisture contained in butter. In evaporat- 
ing moisture great care should be exercised not to burn sample. 
This is particular and should be done accurate. 



Buttermakers Short Course 95 



CHAPTER XVII 

Overrun 
Overrun — Overchurn — Overyield 

The above titles constitute the percentage in pounds of butter 
over pounds of butterfat. 

To find the percentage of overrun subtract the pounds of but- 
terfat from the number of pounds of butter made, and divide this 
sum by the pounds of butterfat. 

Example 1 ,000 lbs. of butter — 800 lbs. of butterfat, equal 
200 lbs. overrun; 200 lbs. of overrun divided by 800 lbs. of 
butterfat equals 25% of overrun. 

Why Overrun Fluctuates 

Conditions contributing to low overrun are such factors as the 
following : 

Carelessness of operator. 

Poor workmanship of operator. 

Incompetent assistance to operator. 

Inexperienced help to operator. 

Using poor machinery. 

Heavy shrinkage. 

Moisture not properly controlled. 

Too high butterfat content in butter. 

Loss in churning. 

Inefficient refrigeration. 

Making test without proper testing knowledge. 

Taking unproportionate sample. 

Insufficient amount of salt incorporated. 



96 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Pasteurizing very sour cream. 
Leaky churns. 

Churning cream at too high temperature. 
Filling churn too full. 
Not properly preparing packages. 

Leaving top off sample jars, increasing evaporation of moisture 
fiom sample, which makes the test read too high. 

Incompetent, incomplete, inaccurate tests for salt, moisture and 



fat. 



Not keeping record of work to check leaks. 
Heavy fat losses in buttermilk. 
Careless weighing of cream. 
Inaccurate work of operator. 



Buttermakers Short Course 97 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Preparing Packages for Market 
Preparing Packages So As to Prevent Mold and Shrinkage 

Where tubs are used for packing butter they should be soaked 
at least 1 to 12 hours in a brine solution strong enough to float an 
egg. This prevents mold and assures a nice clean package. The 
tub should be submerged under the brine water in a wooden tank. 
(Fig. 27.) The covers should also be soaked a couple of hours 
before being used. 

The Liners 

The liners for butter tubs or butter boxes should be soaked in 
a solution of brine from 4 to 6 hours before being used. This is 
very necessary, especially when butter is being stored. Dry salt 
should be rubbed inside of the tub before the liner is put in. When 
this system has been used there has never been a complaint about 
moldy butter. 

Sizes of Tank to Use 

For 12 butter tubs 2J/2 ft. wide 6 ft. long 2 J/2 ft. deep 



20 " 


<« 


2J/2 " 


IC 


8 " " 


3 " 


28 " 


«« 


2V 2 " 


(< 


10 " " 


3 " 


35 " 


i t 


3 " 


« « 


12 " " 


Wi " 


50 " 


ti 


3 " 


n 


16 " " 


3 " 



Packing Butter in Boxes and Tubs 

In packing butter in boxes for the market it is necessary to put 
small portions of butter into the box while packing, using a square 



98 Buttermakers Short Course 




Fig. 27. Soaking Tank for Soaking Tubs. 

packer and being careful to pack firm in the corners of the boxes. 
Putting large amounts of butter in the boxes and not thoroughly 
packing often causes mold, and a heavy shrinkage when being cut 
into prints. Never put more than 8 to 1 lbs. of butter in boxes 
at one time before tamping down with a butter packer. When butter 
is not properly packed the shrinkage is enormous when being cut 
into prints, and this makes it very unprofitable for both the com- 
mission merchant and the creamery. The loss in shrinkage falls on 
the manufacturer. (Figs. 28 and 29.) 



Buttermakers Short Course 99 





Fig. 28. No. 1 in the figure shows properly packed tub 
of butter. No. 2 is same size tub improperly 
packed. The loss in the moisture in cutting into 
prints in No. 1 was 1% lbs. The loss in No. 2 was 
2y 2 lbs. on a 63-lb. tub of butter. Experiments 
made in New York City, March 12, 1916, by the 
authors. 




Fig. 29. No. 3 in the figure is a properly packed box 
of butter, containing 63 lbs. No. 4 is a box of 
butter improperly packed, box containing the same 
cubical contents. Contains 60 lbs. of butter. A loss 
of 3 lbs. on every package in weight. 



100 Buttermafyers Short Course 



CHAPTER XIX 
Scoring Butter 

Butter Grades and Scoring 

With the butter trade — that is, butter buyers, wholesalers and 
retailers — butter is graded, as follows: 

"Specials," the very best; "Extras," "Firsts" and "Seconds" 
in the order named. There is a wide variation in the prices between 
"Specials" and "Seconds." There is always a good market for 
"Specials," whereas the lower grades are a drug on the market 
most of the time. 

In scoring butter for the markets the following division of 
points are made: 

Flavor 45 Clean, distinctively sweet, nutty and full of 

character — fresh, pleasing aroma. 

Body 25 Waxy, a grain that is firm, smooth, close and 

glossy and breaks like a piece of cold steel. 

g a j t ] Medium, well dissolved, quite briny, sharp salt 

for western markets, light salt for eastern 
markets, very light for high score in contests; 
judges look for fine aroma and salt kills this 
when too much is added. 

Color 15 Even, free from mottles or streaks, neither too 

high nor too low. 

Package .... 5 Neat, clean, full, well put up. Free from holes 
or crevices when stripped from tub. Smooth 
surface on outside of butter after stripped. 



Buttermakers Short Course 101 



Further Points Considered in Scoring 

Flavor: Clean, sweet, fresh, high in aroma. 

Body: Firm, uniform, pull full trier without showing feather 
edge or in any way indicating weak body. Should pull clean, not 
tallow like or sticky, but waxy. Butter should show a good even 
granule and look like a broken piece of steel. 

Color: Uniform, light straw, free from mottles or being wavy 
or streaked. 

Salt: To suit market, not too high, as too high salt spoils 
the fine flavor in the butter. 

Package: Clean, neat and properly packed. A smooth finished 
body when stripped from package. 



102 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER XX 

Creamery Refrigeration 

The following complete detail information is a reprint of Bulle- 
tin No. 59, Minnesota Dairy and Food Department, October, 1915: 

During the past few years the interest in better creamery re- 
frigeration has noticeably increased and so many inquiries from 
creameries all over the state have been received by the different state 
departments that it has been deemed wise to issue this small bulletin 
on refrigeration. We fully realize that this bulletin does not answer 
all questions relating to refrigeration, as the subject covers a wide 
scope and conditions in different sections are so varied, but we have 
attempted to furnish the reader with some general information on 
refrigeration with special reference to artificial refrigeration and 
insulated ice houses. 

There can be no doubt that efficient and at the same time 
economical refrigeration is necessary for successful creamery opera- 
tion. It surely is poor business for a creamery to spend a lot of 
good money for ripeners, pasteurizers and other equipment which is 
necessary to make the best butter, and then have no facilities for 
taking care of the butter after it is made. 

A large percentage of the creameries in Minnesota and other 
states ship their butter to distant markets, which means that keeping 
quality in the butter is of the greatest importance, and when butter is 
kept in the creamery refrigerator for a number of days before it is 
shipped, it is not difficult to understand that the temperature and gen- 
eral condition of the refrigerator has considerable influence on the 
keeping quality of the butter. It is also reasonable to believe that 
when butter is kept in a dry and cold refrigerator it will arrive on the 
market in much better condition than it will if kept in a damp re- 



Buttermakcrs Short Course 103 



frigerator at a comparatively high temperature before leaving the 
creamery. A dry and cold refrigerator will also prevent abnormal 
shrinkage in butter, often caused by holding the butter at a high 
temperature. The losses due to mouldy butter will also be mate- 
rially reduced by the use of good refrigeration. Another advantage 
of good refrigeration is that it gives the buttermaker better control 
of the ripening process, as it enables him to cool his cream quickly 
and efficiently at any time desired. 

There is no doubt that many creameries sustain heavy losses 
during hot weather, because of poor refrigerating facilities, and if 
for instance a creamery making 200,000 pounds of butter during 
the year could increase the value one-half cent on half of the 
output it would mean a gain of $500 a year. If in addition to 
this the shrinkage could be reduced one-half pound per tub on 
this amount it would result in a gain of 800 pounds of butter 
which, at 30 cents per pound, would be worth $240 or a total 
gain of $740. 

There is in Minnesota approximately one hundred creameries 
using mechanical refrigeration and insulated ice houses, and many 
of these creameries have furnished us with information relating 
to refrigeration, which has been of much assistance in preparing 
this bulletin. According to this information, there is not the least 
doubt that both mechanical refrigeration and insulated ice houses 
are very satisfactory if properly installed and intelligently handled. 

System to Install 

When a creamery gets to a point of deciding what to do to 
obtain better refrigeration, the question of what system to install 
necessarily arises, and while this bulletin does not definitely solve 
this problem, we trust that the information here set forth will 
materially assist those in charge of creameries to decide which sys- 
tem should prove the most satisfactory for them. 

In deciding whether it would be wise for a creamery to install 



104 Buttermakers Short Course 



mechanical refrigeration or build an insulated ice house, it would 
be necessary to consider such matters as cost of ice, and amount 
and quality of cream handled. The size of power plant should 
also be considered and it is advisable under certain conditions to 
improve or enlarge it, in order that the mechanical refrigeration 
plant can be operated economically. When a new creamery build- 
ing is erected, it is not so difficult to decide which system of refrig- 
eration is the most satisfactory, while if an old building must be 
used, it is often a more perplexing problem to solve. 

When a new creamery building is erected the main factors to 
consider in deciding on what system of refrigeration to use, is cost 
of ice, and amount and quality of cream handled. 

The cost of ice is, as a rule, the deciding factor, and when a 
creamery making 200,000 pounds of butter per year, for instance, 
can put up the yearly ice supply for less than $150 the insulated 
ice house would appear to be the most practical, while, if ice costs 
more than this, it would be advisable to consider mechanical re- 
frigeration. When a large creamery receives cream in a more or 
less sour condition, which makes quick cooling necessary, then it 
may be wise to install mechanical refrigeration regardless of cost 
of ice, as this system makes it possible to cool somewhat faster 
than can be done with ice. 

If mechanical refrigeration is used, the power plant should 
always be large enough to run the compressor at the same time 
that other machinery is being operated, except where electric power 
is used, when it is desirable to have a separate motor for the 
compressor. 

Another point to consider in deciding on what system of 
refrigeration is best suited for a creamery is whether or not it is 
an advantage to carry a temperature in the refrigerator of much 
below 40 degrees, and if it was found to be much value to have 
a lower temperature than this, it, of course, would be wise to 
install mechanical refrigeration, as 40 degrees is about as low a 



Buttermakers Short Course 105 



temperature as can be had with any other system. We find, how- 
ever, that the average temperature carried by creameries having 
mechanical refrigeration is about 39 degrees which would indicate 
that buttermakers consider this low enough for good results as a 
much lower temperature could be had with mechanical refrigeration, 
if desired. 

There are some places where conditions do not justify the 
expenditure of much money for refrigeration, and for that reason 
we are describing in this bulletin what we call an insulated ice 
bunker refrigerator. This is practically the same as the old style 
refrigerator, except that it is insulated and built larger to accom- 
modate more ice. 

Mechanical Refrigeration 

In explaining the different system of refrigeration, it is hardly 
necessary to say very much about mechanical refrigeration, as 
this system has been advertised considerably and it is generally 
well understood by most of those interested in this subject. 

Mechanical refrigeration has been in general use for a number 
of years, but it is only during the past few years that some of 
the local creameries in Minnesota have adopted this system, and the 
methods used in applying this system to creamery use have been 
improved each year, and further improvement may be expected. 

There is yet some difference of opinion among manufacturers 
of refrigerating systems, as well as among creamery men, in regard 
to the use of brine and sweet water for cooling cream, and it has 
not been generally demonstrated that one is much more satisfactory 
than the other. Brine has the advantage over water in that it 
can be pumped through the ripener several degrees below freezing, 
but it is more liable to corrode the metal it comes in contact with, 
and if a leak should occur in the ripener coil the brine would 
come in contact with the cream, causing more or less damage. 

If cream is pasteurized in the ripener, or if well water is used 



106 Buttermakers Short Course 



for cooling in connection with brine, there will be a loss of btine 
or the brine will be diluted by the water remaining in the coil. 

Cooling cream with sweet water is necessarily a little slower 
than cooling with brine, but the advantages of using sweet water 
are worthy of consideration, and it is to be hoped that manufac- 
turers of refrigerating plants will perfect some system of cooling 
sweet water quickly, which would be practical in all creameries 
having mechanical refrigeration. 

Water Supply 

It is not advisable to do all the cooling of cream with me- 
chanical refrigeration or ice water, but cream should be cooled 
down to about 60 degrees with well water as this is cheaper than 
other methods of cooling, and water at 50 degrees or lower will 
cool cream reasonably fast down to 60 degrees. 

It is also well to remember that mechanical refrigeration re- 
quires considerable water for cooling the compressor and ammonia 
condenser; from four to six gallons of water per minute is needed 
for a four-ton compressor, and this water should be as cold as 
possible, hence the necessity of having a good supply of well water. 

What Size to Install 

The size of refrigerating plant to install depends, of course, 
on amount of business done, but under ordinary creamery condi- 
tions we would recommend a four-ton compressor with condenser 
and other piping and coils in proportion for a creamery making 
200,000 pounds of butter per year. If the run is much larger 
than this, it may be wise to install a larger refrigerating plant, 
but it would not be advisable to install a smaller plant unless 
the run is very small. It is well to remember that the capacity 
of a refrigerating plant does not depend altogether on the size 
of the ammounia compressor, and a plant can not be operated to 
its capacity, if the expansion coils and other piping is not of the 



Buttermafyers Short Course 107 



proper size. When buying a refrigerating plant it is well to keep 
in mind that the low side of the plant determines the capacity just 
as much as the compressor. 

Installation 

When installing a mechanical refrigerating plant some thought 
and attention should be given to the location of the compressor, 
as well as to placing the condenser and liquid receiver and other 
piping in a convenient place. It is advisable to have the com- 
pressor close to the source of power, in fact, a direct drive from 
the engine to the compressor is the most satisfactory. 

If on account of lack of room, it is impossible to have the 
compressor driven direct from the engine, it is best to drive it 
from the main line shaft, and it is never wise to transmit the 
power to counter shafts, and from these to the compressor, unless 
it is absolutely necessary. It is desirable to have the compressor 
as close as possible to the refrigerator as this saves piping and 
insulation of the pipes, and also avoids some slight losses, due to 
carrying the liquid through long pipe lines. When the arrangement 
of the creamery building is such that the source of power is some 
distance from the refrigerator, we would advise to locate the com- 
pressor near the source of power and use a longer pipe line to reach 
the refrigerator, as the transmission of power would cause greater 
losses than would the carrying of liquid through a longer pipe line. 

The condenser and liquid receiver should not be placed too 
far from the floor, as leaks will sometimes occur, and it is con- 
venient to be able to make repairs without the use of a ladder. 

If brine or sweet water has to be pumped from the refrigerator 
to the ripeners, it is best to have the pipes for carrying the brine 
or water laid under the floor. This can be readily done if a 
new building is erected, but such pipes should be well insulated 
and the insulation should be covered with asphalt to prevent absorp- 
tion of moisture from the ground. 



108 Buttermakers Short Course 



When a refrigerating plant is installed after a building is com- 
pleted, it may be better to carry the pipes overhead, rather than 
to tear up the floor, in order to lay the pipes, but the pipes should 
be well insulated, the same as other pipes carrying cold liquid 
outside of the refrigerator. 

The Refrigerator 

It is economy to have a well insulated refrigerator when me- 
chanical refrigeration is used, and we would recommend not less 
than six inches of board form insulation, with a cement finish. 
The size of refrigerator will, of course, depend on amount of 
business done, but it is always well to have the refrigerator of 
ample size to take care of an increase in the business. 

The Floor 

The floor should be insulated with not less than three inches 
of board form insulation. It should have from three-eighths-inch 
to one-half-inch slope to the foot, and should slope away from 
the door, so as to keep the bottom of the door as dry as possible. 
A good refrigerator door has felt pads at the bottom to make 
the door fit tight, and if these pads are kept wet, they will not 
last long. 

The Door 

It always pays to buy a good door for the refrigerator; in 
fact, the best door that can be bought will prove to be the cheapest 
in the end. This door should be three feet wide by six feet and 
six inches high, which will allow space for the starter can, and 
a thirty-inch truck to be taken through. 

The Wind on? 

The refrigerator should have a small window with six or more 
sash; this window should be about twenty by twenty-four inches 



Buttermakers Short Course 109 



in size, and it should be placed about five feet above the floor. 
Never build any kind of a creamery refrigerator without a window. 

Winter Ventilation 

The window should be so constructed that all but two of 
the sash can be removed during the winter time, and these two 
should be hinged at top or bottom, so they can be conveniently 
opened more or less according to outside temperature. The reason 
for this is, that it is necessary to have some cold fresh air in the 
refrigerator to avoid dampness and mould. The door to the churn 
room should be kept closed as much as possible, as warm and 
damp air is the principal cause of mouldy refrigerators. 

Tanks and Coils 

It is desirable to have the refrigerator constructed so that the 
brine tanks and coils can be removed without tearing down the 
refrigerator, as the tanks and coils are liable to give out after a 
number of years of service, and it is not so much of a job nor as 
expensive, to replace them if they can be changed without tearing 
any part of the refrigerator out. 

The expansion coil in the brine tank should be so constructed 
that it can be kept submerged in brine all the time. Where the 
pipes enter and leave the brine tank, there should be two unions 
a few inches apart, one below the brine and the other one imme- 
diately above. This makes it possible to replace the short pieces 
of pipe which are exposed to both air and brine as at this point 
the corrosion is most rapid. The expansion coil in the brine tank 
should be one continuous coil without any fittings, except the unions 
as mentioned above. - Such a coil should last a long time when 
completely submerged in brine, while if part of the coil is exposed 
to air at times, it will not last as long. 



110 Buttermakers Short Course 



Air circulation 

Circulation of air in the refrigerator is the greatest importance, 
as a refrigerator can not possibly be dry without circulation. Re- 
frigerator is constructed with overhead tank and coils. 

First Cost 

A four-ton mechanical refrigerating plant will cost from twelve 
to fifteen hundred dollars installed. It is not always wise to buy 
a plant because it is cheap, and due consideration should be given 
to the quality of tanks, coils, pipes and fittings. Before buying 
any plant it is advisable to investigate the merits of same, and also 
obtain some information regarding the reliability of the manufacturer. 

To the cost of the refrigerating plant must be added the cost 
of insulating the refrigerator, which will, of course, vary according 
to size. In a creamery making one hundred to one hundred twenty- 
five tubs of butter per week the cost of insulating a refrigerator would 
vary from $300.00 to $400.00. 

Cost of Operation 

The cost of operating and maintaining a mechanical refrigerat- 
ing plant can not be definitely stated, and there is quite a difference 
in the cost of operating refrigerating plants in different creameries. 
The items which are considered in the cost of operation are fuel, 
oil, ammonia and calcium chloride, and according to information 
received from creameries using mechanical refrigeration, the cost 
of these will vary from $50 to $150 per year. In addition to 
the above there will be some expense for repairs, though this should 
not amount to much for some time, if a good plant is installed, 
and if no accidents occur. The cost of operating and maintaining 
a plant will depend much on the efficiency of the operator, as his 
watchfulness and careful operation of the plant will count for much 
in obtaining efficiency and operating the plant economically. 



Buttermakers Short Course 111 



Care of Plant 

If a good plant is properly installed it should only require the 
same good care that must be given all kinds of machinery to main- 
tain its efficiency and durability, but it may be of value to some 
operators to mention a few of the points that are of special impor- 
tance in operating a refrigerating plant. It is important that the 
whole system is kept tight so as to avoid losses due to ammonia 
leaks. When the compressor is run, there must be a steady stream 
of cold water passing around the cylinders and through the am- 
monia condenser, as this increases the capacity and efficiency of 
the plant. The water lines through the compressor and condenser 
should be taken down and cleaned about once a year, as iron rust 
and other sediment in the water will in time clog the pipes and 
obstruct the free circulation of the water. It is advisable to always 
have a small drum of ammonia on hand so that the plant can be 
charged if the supply of ammonia runs low, or if through some 
accident part or all of the ammonia should escape from the system. 

The ammonia in the system should not be allowed to run too 
low as lack of ammonia decreases the capacity of the plant. 

The calcium chloride brine should be kept up to the standard 
strength by adding a little calcium chloride from time to time. If 
any of the brine is lost, or if it is diluted with water from the 
ripener coil, it is necessary to add more calcium chloride to the 
brine than would be necessary if sweet water is used for cooling 
cream. It is advisable to have a salometer for testing the strength 
of the brine. A brine test of eighty to ninety is about right for 
a temperature of zero and above. If the brine is not circulated 
the calcium chloride will dissolve very slowly when placed in the 
brine tank, and it is, therefore, better to dissolve the calcium in 
warm water before adding it to the brine. 

In a cold building it is necessary to take some precaution dur- 
ing the winter months to keep the condenser and other pipes from 
freezing and bursting. If a few drip-cocks are placed at the low 



112 Buttermafyers Short Course 



points the pipes may be drained without much trouble whenever 
it is necessary. 

A Few Hints 

Mechanical refrigeration will prove to be a poor investment 
without a competent buttermaker or operator. 

Don't buy a refrigerating plant because it is cheap. 

When buying a plant insist on good material and a guarantee 
from the manufacturer. 

A refrigerating plant will not run itself. It will not produce 
refrigeration without ammonia. 

Buy good ammonia, and buy from the same mannfacturer 
all the time. 

Mixing different kinds of ammonia may cause lots of trouble 
and should be avoided. 

An efficient power plant is necessary for economical operation 
of a refrigerating plant. 

The Insulated Ice House System 

From drawing (Fig. 30) the reader will get some idea of 
the principles upon which the insulated ice house system works. It 
is simply a well-insulated refrigerator with the ice bunker large 
enough to hold the whole season's ice supply. 

As the insulation is placed in the walls, floor and ceilings, there 
is no sawdust to shovel, or rot the building, and no ice to handle. 
Cream can be cooled with little or no labor, and to any desired 
temperature suitable for buttermaking. 

The two main requirements for the successful operation of 
this system is ; first, ample ice room ; second, proper insulation. There 
are at present about fifty creameries in the state using this system, 
and among them there are several that are not getting satisfactory 



Buttermakers Short Course 113 




/fe-1- ^tiit'/r-r- 



Fig. 30. Illustration showing the insulated ice house and ice 
water cistern for circulating ice water through the cream 
ripeners. This cut also shows the pipe connections and 
the refrigerator. 

results, but we find in every case that their building is too small 
or poorly insulated, or both. The principle has proven practical, 
and satisfactory results depend on proper construction. 



Cream Cooling 

With this system an insulated cement tank is built in the 
ground in connection with the floor, in such a way that it will 
catch all the meltage from the ice, and this ice water can then 
be pumped through the cream ripener for cooling the cream, and 
back to the tank or up over the ice. For cooling a small amount 
of cream, the water in the tank is usually found to be sufficient, 
but for larger quantities it will be necessary to either pump the 
water over the ice, or else put some crushed ice in the tank. 

Still another method would be to place a large cake of ice on 



114 Butterrnakers Short Course 



the grate over the ice tank and let the return water run directly 
over same, which will cool the water rapidly. 

The size of water tank depends somewhat on the amount 
of cream to be cooled, but should contain at least as many gallons 
as the largest day's run of cream during the flush. A tank 3x5x6 
feet deep is desirable size. 

Construction 

The walls can be constructed of lumber, brick, concrete or any 
other building material that will make an air-tight and moisture- 
proof wall. It is well to have the foundation under the frost line 
to prevent the walls from settling as that might damage the insulation. 

The walls and ceiling in both rooms should have from four 
inches to six inches of board form insulation, or its equal in effi- 
ciency. The east, south or west outside walls should have six 
inches, a north outside wall five inches and inside walls and ceiling 
four inches of insulation. Board insulation can be set right against 
a concrete or brick wall in cement mortar, or nailed against a frame 
wall, and then finished off with cement plaster. Asphalt can be 
used in place of, or in connection with, Portland cement plaster. 
The manufacturers of the different insulating materials give full 
directions for applying same. The best method is to let the manu- 
facturer put the insulation on and guarantee it. 

The floors should be laid as follows: Grade the ground with 
a gradual slope the same as the finished floor is to have, and cover 
with about six inches of cinders or gravel, then lay a four to five- 
inch lean concrete floor, smooth but not troweled; over this lay 
three inches of corkboard flooded in hot asphalt and finish with 
four inches of concrete and one-half-inch facing. The floor in both 
rooms should have a slope of one-half inch to the foot as per direc- 
tion of arrows on drawing No. 2, and have well rounded corners. 

A cheaper floor can be used for the ice room temporarily, that 
will give fairly good results. Lay five or six rows of four-inch 



Buitermakers Short Course 115 



drainage tile twelve inches to eighteen inches below the floor line, 
so that the weight of the ice will not crush them, connect them 
together at one end and then with a trap to sewer. Cover the tile 
with cinders or gravel even with the ground, and then cover the 
whole with twelve inches of clean cinders or gravel. The ice 
water will in this case soak through the gravel and tile, and then 
to the sewer. The ice water tank can still be there and ice put 
in same for cooling cream. 

The pipes connecting ice water tank and ripener had best be 
brass, when laid underneath the floor, to insure durability. They 
should not be less than one and one-quarter inches and have two 
and one-half inches of the best obtainable insulating material. After 
the pipes and insulation are in place, the latter should be cov- 
ered thoroughly with asphalt, or better still, completely submerged 
in asphalt, which will preserve them from moisture and decay. 

In order to have light in the ice room, a window 30x30 inches 
should be placed near the ceiling, and have six sash well fitted, 
as this window never needs to be opened. The door connecting 
the refrigerator with the ice room can be made of two thicknesses 
of seven-eighths-inch of T. & G. lumber and need only fit mod- 
erately tight. It must be kept closed in order to insure proper 
circulation. 

The outside door for filling ice house should be from three feet 
six inches to four feet wide and seven feet high, and can best be 
sealed up by nailing strips at the inner and outer edges of door 
frame in such a way as to form grooves into which can be fitted with 
boards of the same length as the width of the door. The space so 
formed should be at least twelve inches and can then be filled with 
granulated cork, flax fibre, mineral wool or dry mill shavings, 
well packed. If this is taken down each fall and dried carefully 
it can be used from year to year. A common door can be hung 
on the outside to keep rain and sun off. This door should be 
removed when filling ice house. 



116 Buttermakers Short Course 



The refrigerator should have door, window and floor slope 
same as described for mechanical refrigeration. 

Circulation 

The ceiling in the ice storage should be as high as possible, or 
at least eighteen to twenty feet, as that will give better circulation 
than a lower ceiling and wider dimensions. In the butter storage 
part, or refrigerator, the ceiling should be seven to eight feet high. 
The wall between the two rooms does not necessarily have to be 
insulated, though an inch or two may benefit the circulation some- 
what. This wall must, however, be airtight except at the floor 
and ceiling of the refrigerator, where a number of openings should 
be provided, so the cold air can come into the refrigerator at the 
floor, and then as it gradually warms up, it will rise to the ceiling, 
and finally pass back into the ice room through the air flues over 
head, and again come in contact with the ice. 

It is desirable to extend these air flues over about two-thirds 
of the ceiling so as to make the air pass way over to the further 
wall, thereby creating a complete circulation in the whole room. 
The total area of these openings at the floor should be about five 
hundred square inches, those at the ceiling six hundred square 
inches, and, the flues in the ice room still a trifle larger, so as to 
not retard the circulation. 

Size of Ice Storage 

The size of ice room to build will depend mostly on the 
quantity of butter made and the amount and quality of insulation 
used, but under ordinary conditions a creamery making 200,000 
pounds of butter per year needs about 8,000 cubic feet of ice 
storage space, which should be increased 20 per cent for each 
additional 100,000 pounds, and decreased 15 per cent if make is 
only 100,000 pounds. This will hold 150 tons of ice if well 
packed. 



Buttermakers Short Course 117 



Filling Ice House 

Ice should always be cut in oblong cakes, say 1 6x24 inches or 
18x27 inches, and then piled lengthwise and crosswise every other 
layer. This way they will break joints and bind together and 
prevent falling out against the wall. There should be a space 
of one inch to six inches left between the ice and walls, so as to 
prevent the ice from crushing the plaster, and moisture reaching 
the insulation. When packing ice leave an opening the size of 
four cakes of ice by the door, and fill this space as far up as 
possible after the room has been filled. For hoisting ice, place a 
single pulley in the ceiling, directly in fromt of the door, and two 
feet from the wall, and another at the corner of the door sill; a 
three-quarter-inch rope through these, and a horse, will elevate a 
load of ice in a few minutes, and it does away with the long, heavy 
and cumbersome chute, and takes less room. Each layer of ice 
should be shaved off on top so as to form a level surface for the 
next layer. 

First Cost of Insulated Ice House System 

The first cost will depend chiefly on the size, amount and 
kind of insulation used. The cost of labor and material differ 
so much in different localities, that only some contractor in the 
vicinity can give somewhere near accurate figures on the cost of 
walls, roofing and foundation. From observation of a large num- 
ber of cases, however, we venture to say that $1,400 to $1,800 
will put in a first-class system complete. 

We give below table showing the cost per square foot of 
insulation erected complete: 

Four-inch insulation in two layers, 27 cents to 35 cents per 
square foot. 

Five-inch insulation in two layers, 30J/2 cents to 40 cents per 
square foot. 



118 Buttermafyers Short Course 



Six-inch insulation in two layers, 34 cents to 45 cents per 
square foot. 

Three inches of cork laid on floor, 20 cents to 22 cents per 
square foot 

These prices do not include walls, roof or concrete for floors, 
but does include all material and labor pertaining to insulation. 

Cost of Operation 

With this system there is no other cost than putting up the 
ice in the winter, which will vary from $50 to $175, depending, 
of course, on the amount of ice, distance it has to be hauled and 
cost of labor. In many communities ice could be put up much 
cheaper than it now is, if the job was auctioned off to the lowest 
bidder, or by sealed bids, well advertised beforehand. In some 
localities ice can be shipped by rail quite a distance and laid up 
in the ice house for around $1 per ton. 

The insulated ice house system needs no other attention than 
to see that ice is well packed and that the outside door is sealed 
up perfectly tight. We want especially to emphasize this door, as 
that is where so many have made mistakes. It is necessary to 
keep the refrigerator door closed as much as possible, also to use 
a truck for taking butter in and out of refrigerator, in order to 
avoid loss of refrigeration. 

A Few Hints 

The insulated ice house must be insulated, otherwise it is a 
failure. 

Free circulation of air from the ice storage to the butter room 
is necessary. 

Don't use a home-made door for the refrigerator, but buy the 
best ready made door; it will be cheaper in the end. 

The refrigerator door should be kept shut as much as possible. 



Buttermafyers Short Course 119 



A truck should be used for taking butter in and out of refrig- 
erator. 

It is necessary to have the outside door of the ice storage 
perfectly tight and well insulated. 

Have a small awning over refrigerator window if exposed to 
the sun. 

Fill the ice house full. 

Don't pack the ice against the walls. 

Insulated Ice Bunker Refrigerator 

In places where it is only a matter of a few years until a 
new building will have to be erected, and also where the volume 
of business does not warrant the expenditure of a large sum of 
money for refrigeration, a well insulated side ice bunker refrigerator 
can be made to answer the purpose quite efficiently. 

It is practically the same as our old style refrigerators, only it 
is well insulated, and made large enough so it will hold nine or ten 
tons of ice when well filled, and this will give a low temperature 
in butter room. As it will only need refilling a few time during 
each year, a couple of extra men can be hired for that purpose. 

Figure 31 shows the plan and principle of this system, and 
some of the most important details of its construction. Frame 
will undoubtedly be the cheapest and handiest construction and 
we would advise using three thicknesses of one-half-inch refrig- 
erator Linofelt, Flaxlinum, Keystone hair felt, or any other similar 
pliable form of insulation. Between the studdings, which should 
be sixteen-inch centers, can be placed two layers, which will form 
two air spaces, and the third layer can be nailed directly on the 
2x4's with one-half-inch strips, to which should be nailed three-inch 
Georgia pine flooring. The walls of ice chamber should be lined 
with galvanized iron to protect from moisture. 

The floor can best be insulated by laying two inches of cork 
board between two "layers of concrete as shown in drawing No. 3. 
The ice rack can be made of 2x6's and should be well supported. 



120 Buttermaf(ers Short Course 




tig?***- 



J>f9/*it* i^cw^r. 



tfo-3'fci/e. / /s'-/? 



Fig. 31. This illustration shows a refrigerator with a large ice 
chest. The ice chest can be built large enough to hold a large 
amount of ice. 



Doors for filling and taking out ice, and window, can be 
placed to suit local convenience. It is quite necessary to have a 
window at some point, otherwise the door will be left open too 
much. 

Good quality refrigerator doors and frames ready made will 
prove the cheapest in the long run. 

After having done your best to make a high-grade butter, 
is it not important that you provide good refrigeration until the 
product leaves the creamery? 



efrigeraior Tables 






Giving 


capacities and dimensions. 




Number 


Width, Length 


Number 


Width, Length 


Tubs 


and Height 


Tubs 


and Height 


20 


4x 6x7|/2 


160 


10x10x8 


25 


5x 6x71/2 


210 


10x12x8 


30 


6x 6x71/2 


240 


10x14x8 





Bui 


'lermakers She 


>rt Course 121 


Number 


Width, Length 


Number 


Width, Length 


Tubs 


and Height 


Tubs 


and Height 


40 


6x 6x8 


280 


10x16x8 


50 


6x 7x8 


315 


10x18x8 


60 


6x 8x8 


385 


10x20x8 


75 


6x 9x8 


433 


1 0x22x8 


100 


6x10x8 


483 


1 0x24x8 


120 


6x12x8 


250 


12x12x8 


110 


8x 8x8 


300 


12x14x8 


125 


8x10x8 


320 


12x16x8 


150 


8x12x8 


360 


12x18x8 


200 


8x14x8 


400 


12x20x8 


225 


8x18x8 


440 


12x22x8 


280 


8x20x8 


460 


12x24x8 




Table No. 3 





122 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER XXI 

Ventilation of Creameries 

Importance of Ventilation 

This is a very important factor in buttermaking as it is im- 
possible to work in a damp, poorly ventilated building. Good 
ventilation conserves health and increases efficiency of employes. 
There are several things to be taken into consideration in ventila- 
tion. The heat required, location of the building, the height of 
the ceiling, the kind of building, and the size of the building, 
the arrangement of the machinery, the amount of steam produced 
and escaping while in operation; also the amount of air contained 
in the creamery, the number of machines in use. 

Creameries using pasteurizing machinery, developing large quan- 
tities of waste steam, cannot be ventilated satisfactorily or near perfect 
without using a motor power or an exhaust fan. 

The volume of steam exposed to the air and the amount of 
cold air coming in contact with the steam which causes evaporation 
has its influence on ventilation. 

The first thing to consider when ventilating a creamery is 
the space to be ventilated in cubic feet, the corners, windows and 
doors, or any obstructions that tend to stop circulation; also the 
thickness of the walls and the materials the building is constructed 
of. A brick or cement creamery is harder to ventilate than a 
wooden structure. Creameries having high ceilings require larger 
inlets and outtakes than creameries with low ceilings. 

The distance from the ceiling line to peak of roof is also an im- 
portant factor, as the suction in a high flue will remove a greater 
volume of air than in a shorter flue, as air travels in a cylinder 
shape, therefore, round flues have more efficiency than square flues. 



Buttermakers Short Course 123 



So, when square flues are used it is necessary to have the square 
flue contain air space in cubic feet equivalent to the air space of 
a cylindrical flue of same cubic feet capacity. As when a square 
flue is used it is necessary to have them large enough to remove the 
air from the building as small square flues for outtakes are worth- 
less. Where a fan is used it is not necessary to have as large 
flues as when fans are not used. The use of flues of from 24 to 
30 inches in diameter is usually large enough in creameries where 
a fan is used. 

All joints where elbows are put together and where pipes are 
jointed together should be soldered tight in order to get the greatest 
efficiency. Leaky joints reduce efficiency to a great extent in ven- 
tilating systems. 



Intafa 



es 



The intakes can be built in walls when possible; when not, 
should come up from outside of building and through walls. (Fig, 
32.) There should be a damper outside and a door inside to close 
up in cold weather. The intake should enter the building from 
1 to 16 inches below the ceiling line. And it should be large 
enough to admit the proper amount of fresh air necessary. 

Sizes Usually Used 

Sizes usually used are 6x8, 6x10, 8x12, 12x14 and 12x16. 
These are sizes commonly used in the average creamery. It is 
better to install a number of small intakes of medium size than a 
less number of large intakes, as the more evenly we distribute the 
cold air the better the ventilating system will work. 

All ventilating systems must be regulated to suit the condition 
of the air, whether hot or cold. Good judgment must be used. 
There is no ventilating system, automatic or self-regulating, that 
can be used in a creamery with success. It is necessary to regulate 



124 Buttermakers Short Course 




"'m*f/ssf//s//*//sfsssssssssssssfs/s/s. 



Fig. 32. Ventilating intake 
for air. 

1 — Creamery wall 

2 — Ceiling 

3 — Door 

4 — Elbow 

5 — Square flue on intake 

6 — Door on outside of intake 

Material for this intake can be 

either of wood or galvanized 

iron. 



the ventilating system in accordance with the humidity of air; also 
the temperature of the air. When it is hot weather most any 
ventilating system will work, but when it is muggy, damp and cold 
it takes a well-regulated, properly installed system to do the work 
satisfactorily. 



The Use of Exhaust Fan 

The fan should be used when the machinery is in operation 
when the separating, churning and pasteurizing is done. After 



Butterma^ers Short Course 125 



the work is done in the creamery, the clampers in the main flue 
should be closed, and the foul air be allowed to pass through the 
side flue, the aerator being the unit of power. (Fig. 33.) 



^ <c 

e < 




Fig. 33. Illustrating in detail creamery ventilating system, 
and the use of the exhaust fan for circulating the air. 



1 — Areator 

2 — Main flue 

3 — Damper 

4 — Exhaust fan 

5 — Elbow into main flue 

6 — Foul air flue 

7 — Elbow from square to round 

8 — Square flue 



9 — Register in square flue 
10 — Elbow in main flue 
11 — Foul air flue 
12 — Elbow, square to round 
13 — Square flue 
14 — Register in square flue 
15 — Pulley on exhaust fan 
16 — Drivewheel for fan 



126 Buttermakers Short Course 



Measurement of Air 

Number of cubic feet in a pound of air is 1 3,81 7. 

Intake should be open just enough to admit quantities of air 
without cooling or chilling the building. They can be left open 
when the weather is not freezing. 

Speed of Fan 

An exhaust fan should run in proportion to its diameter. A 
fan 24 inches in diameter should not run over 800 revolutions 
per minute, and not below 500 revolutions per minute to do good 
work. The smaller the fan in diameter the higher the speed. It 
is much more satisfactory to install the larger fan, from 24 to 30 
inches in diameter. 

Where to Install Fan 

The fan should be in the bottom of the flue below ceiling 
line from 8 to 1 inches. It should be built into a housing so 
as to form a suction from the creamery area. Fans installed in 
the top of the flues do not have range of capacity as when placed 
at bottom of flue. The housing for fan should come from 6 to 
1 inches below the ceiling line so when the fan is in motion 
this prevents the removal of the warm air from the ceiling, and 
produces a good circulation and does not rob the building of 
the heat. 

Elbows 

Forty-five degree elbows should be used as much as possible 
so as to keep the circulating of air from back pressure and resistance. 
Doors on the intake should fit snug so when shut off will prevent 
cold air from entering the building. The material should be gal- 
vanized iron and no less than 20 gauge to wear and last. 



Buttermakers Short Course 127 



Principles of Ventilation 

To install a satisfactory working system of ventilation it requires, 
first a proper unit of air movement; second, the application gov- 
erning the air movement; third, the proper construction with motive 
power to produce the required amount of air to be moved. 

The Unit for Creamery 

The unit for creamery will vary according to location; also 
the amount of steam generated; the temperature of the building; 
how the building is heated. It is advisable to install a system large 
enough so it can be shut off with dampers and regulated to fit the 
conditions as they exist. A small undersized system in a creamery 
is worthless, and is often installed at a great cost to the creamery 
which heretofore have discouraged the use of ventilating systems. 

Motive Power 

The proper motive power in a creamery where large volumes 
of steam are generated by pasteurizing in open vats or hot cream 
is run over coils exposed to the air, is the exhaust fan. This fan 
can be propelled by power used in the creamery, or by electricity 
or steam. The fan propelled from the line shaft is the most prefer- 
able as when the pasteurizing, separating or churning is being done 
the machinery is in motion and there is no extra expense for power. 
It is necessary to have two units of power, the fan and the aerator. 
The aerator working when machinery is not in operation. 

Foul Air Flues 

The foul air flues should be large enough to remove the damp 
air from the creamery when the fan is not running. They should 
be square from the ceiling down to the floor, ranging in size 
from 8x15 up to 15x20, and should have a register 10 inches 
from floor, and having an area as the flue. A flue 8x15 should 
have a register 8x15. 



128 Buttermal?ers Short Course 



Location of Foul Air Flues 

The foul air flues should always be next to the wall on 
inside of room, and should pass up through the ceiling and connect 
to round flues, those round flues connecting to the main flue using 
45° Ells, shape of those ells should be from square to round where 
they pass through the ceiling. The square flue should figure out 
the same capacity as the round flues do from above the ceiling line 
to the main flue. 

Main Flue 

The main flue or flues should be in proportion to the space 
to be ventilated and when a large creamery is to be ventilated it 
is better to have two or more flues. Where two flues are used they 
should be set at equal distances from end of room to get the best 
results. 

Location of Intakes 

The intakes should be installed on the opposite side of the 
building and not too near the foul air flues. It is a good plan 
when possible to install intakes on south or east side of buildings. 
This part of the installation is very important. 

Size of Fan to Use 

The fan should be the size of the main flue in the center of 
the ceiling, or as near as possible and should run at a speed to 
produce a good circulation of air, and at the same time to draw 
the steam and dampness from the pasteurizers, preventing it from 
adhering to the walls or ceiling; that causes dampness and water 
dripping from walls and ceiling. 

When pasteurizing is done it is impossible to ventilate without 
an exhaust fan. 



Buttermakers Short Course 129 



Speed of Fans Used in Ventilating Systems 



A fan 40 

A fan 35 

A fan 30 

A fan 25 

A fan 20 



nches in diameter should run 350 to 400 r. p. m. 

nches in diameter should run 400 to 450 r. p. m. 

nches in diameter should run 500 to 550 r. p. m. 

nches in diameter should run 600 to 700 r. p. m. 

nches in diameter should run 700 to 800 r. p. m. 



Advantages of Proper Ventilation 

It insures the health of the operator, also prolongs the life 
of the building, as well as the life of the machinery and belting, 
and all equipment used. It prevents mold, improves the appearance 
of the creamery; it also saves fuel as it keeps the building dry and 
makes it easier to heat; it removes all the foul air and odors, giving 
the buttermaker a chance to make better butter. It is inexpensive 
when properly installed and it will do perfect work and last a 
lifetime. 

Heat and Ventilation 

It is impossible to ventilate a cold, poorly built building without 
having it warm, as circulating cold damp air does not ventilate. 
There must be enough of heat so as when the air is circulated to 
condense and dry the steam vapor. It is absolutely necessary to 
operate a ventilating system to fit the conditions as they exist. 

Unnecessary Expense of Ventilation 

Some of the mistakes to guard against are to use good material, 
and it should be heavy enough to withstand the strain and be as rust- 
proof as it is possible. A system should be large enough to do 
the work and then regulate it to fit the condition. Installing small 
systems that do not fit the conditions as they exist is money thrown 
away. 



130 Buttermakers Short Course 



We recommend the King Ventilating System for Creameries, 
Cheese Factories and Milk Plants. Anyone not familiar with 
installing ventilating systems properly should consult the King Ven- 
tilating Co., of Owatonna, Minn., as they are specialists in this work. 



Buttermakers Short Course 131 



CHAPTER XXII 
Cream Separator Speeds 
Effect of Variations in Speed 

When the hand separator is turned up to speed the specific 
gravity, or force of the bowl is at a high velocity, and this drives 
the heavy part of the milk (skimmed milk) to the outside or farthest 
point from the center of the bowl. This high speed forces the 
lighter part of the milk (cream) to the lowest specific gravity of the 
bowl, the center of the bowl. 

Where the speed of the bowl is under its rated speed, the por- 
tion of the heaviest part of the milk will not become separated and 
passes off in the cream, and the cream will contain more milk and 
less butterfat. 

Speed of the Machine 

Cream separators should be run up to full speed all the time 
during the separation of the milk. Turning machines by hand is 
where the speed varies, as it is almost impossible to maintain an 
even accurate rate of speed, especially where more than one person 
turns the machine. 

It is known that the mechanical separation of the fat and 
serum in the milk which differ in specific gravity is caused by centri- 
fugal force. This force is produced by a rapid revolving motion 
of the separator bowl. Naturally the greater the speed of the 
bowl, the greater is the centrifugal force. And consequently the 
more efficient is the separation. 

The speed of the average bowl about 4 inches in diameter is 
9,000 r. p. m. If trie crank is turned 60 times a minute the number 



132 Buttermafyers Short Course 



of revolutions of the bowl for each turn of the crank is 150. If 
the operator allows the crank to go only one-half of one turn, less 
than the required speed, the bowl travels 75 turns less than it 
should. 

In terms of linear feet, is that one-half turn lost, a point on 
the wall of the bowl has fallen behind 80 feet. When it is con- 
sidered that a point on the circumference of a cream separator 
bowl travels at the rate of nearly two miles per minute, the effect 
of a slight variation of speed on the centrifugal force and on the 
efficiency of skimming is great. 

Rated Speed of Cream Separators 

The rated speed of most cream separators are so rated that a 
drop of a few revolutions does not cause much loss of butterfat 
in skimmed milk, as might be supposed. But it affects the percentage 
of butterfat in the cream and is the most direct cause of variations 
in tests. 

Temperatures of Milk for Separation 

Centrifugal separators work most efficient where the tempera- 
ture of the milk is about 85 to 95° Fah., which is a few degrees 
below the body temperature of the cow. Higher temperatures may 
be used with just as satisfactory results, but are not often used, 
especially on the farm. Lower temperatures make the milk flow 
more slowly, due to the viscosity of the milk and this produces a 
higher percentage of fat in the cream and also in the skimmed 
milk, causing great losses. 

Conditions 

Milk from fresh milch cows separates very easily. Milk from 
old milch cows and when cows are milked during a late period of 
lactation, the temperature of the milk should be higher, 90° Fah. to 
95° Fah., and machine should be turned up to full speed to insure 
good separation. 



Buttermakers Short Course 133 



CHAPTER XXIII 

Milk for Market 

Milk 

Color: bluish white; opaque to light, due mostly to casein 
content. More viscous and heavier than water; .032 times heavier 
than water. 

Market Milk 

Inspected by inspector. 

Clarified, running through clarifier and removing sediment. 
Certified, from doctor's care and authority. 
Standardized, mixed fat added or taken out. 
Homogenized, fat globules broken by pressure. 
Emulsified, run through emulsifier with fat globules broken. 
Pasteurized, boiled to certain degrees of heat. 
Sterlized, heat to a degree of 212° Fah. 
Evaporated, moisture removed. 
Condensed, part of moisture evaporated. 

Composition of First and Last Milk Drawn From the Cow 

First milk will contain 87.73 water, 11.37 solids, 1.97 but- 
terfat. 

The last milk of stripping will contain 80.37 water, 19.83 
solids, 10.38 butter fat. 

Defects in Milk and Cream 

Sources to inspect: 
First — Cow. x 



134 Buttermakers Short Course 



Second — Feed eaten. 

Third— Health. 

Fourth — Conditions, time of lactation. 

Fifth — Condition of atmosphere and water used. 

Cause of Off Flavors 

First — Absorbed from poor ventilation. 

Second — Stable unclean, poor floors. 

Third — Milk house unclean. 

Fourth — Kitchen — flavors from cooking. 

Fifth — Ice chest — vegetable. 

Sixth — Unsanitary milking machine. 

Seventh — Keeping milk or cream where there is exhaust from 
air pump on milking machine very bad. Old rusty milk cans 
cause metallic flavor, over-ripe cream causes metallic flavor. 

Bacterial Action 

First — Sour. 

Second — Bitter. 

Third — Gasey. 

Fourth — Ropey. 

Fifth — Coagulated. 

Sixth — Sticky. 

Seventh — Viscosity. Slimey. 

Bacteria 

Shizomycetes — extremely small single-celled fungoid plant, 
single or grouped reproducing rapidly and regarded as active. 

Bacterial Count 

On different process of washing milk cans: 
Cans washed on farm, 490,000 per ex. 






Buttermakers Short Course 135 



Cans washed in creamery using hot water and sterlized with 
steam, 185,000 c.c. 

Cans washed and sterilized for 10 minutes, 9,500 c.c. 

Bacterial Count in Market Milk 

Common, loose, raw in cans, 5,000,000 per c.c. 

Bottles, pasteurized with the flash system, 1 66,000 per c.c. 

Pasteurized and held at 145° Fah. 15 minutes, 14,200 per c.c. 

Pasteurized in bottles and held 30 minutes, temperature 160° 
Fah., 800 per c.c. 

Certified milk, 10,000 c.c. 

Pasteurized, clarified and held 30 minutes, temperature 145° 
Fah., 7,000 per c.c. 

Sterilized at 212° Fah. and held 10 minutes, 500 per c.c. 

This last milk showed the effects of being burned and showed 
a scorched flavor. 



136 Buttermakers Short Course 



CHAPTER XXIV 

Chemistry and Chemical Analysis of Milk 

Chemical Content of Milk 

Normal milk solids 12.83 per cent 

Water 87. 1 7 per cent 

Total 1 00.00 per cent 

Chemical Analysis 

Solids, ash 71 per cent 

Milk sugar 4.88 per cent 

Albumen 55 per cent 

Casein 3.00 per cent 

Fat 3.69 per cent 

Total solids 12.83 per cent 

Chemical Analysis of Milk From Different Dairy Breeds 

Fat Casein Sugar Ash 

Jersey 5.61 3.91 5.15 8 14.75 

Guernsey 5.12 3.61 5.11 8 13.92 

Short Horn 4.48 3.50 5.00 8 12.86 

Brown Swiss 5.00 3.00 4.90 8 12.98 

Dutch Belted 4.80 3.20 4.98 8 13.06 

Ayrshire 3.90 3.40 4.78 7 12.16 

Scrub 4.00 3.00 4,50 8 11.58 

Holstein 3.46 3.31 4.84 7 11.68 



Buttermakers Short Course 137 



Fats Contained in Butterfat 

Melting 

Percentage Variations Temperature 

Butryn 0.386 78° Fah. 

Capuin 0.360 72° Fah. 

Caperlyn 0.055 80° Fah. 

Capron 1.000 116° Fah. 

Laurin 7.400 112° Fah. 

Myistin 20. 1 00 3.25-25 98° Fah. 

Palmetien 25.700 3.35-25 86° Fah. 

Stearin 1.800 2.3-1 100° Fah. 

Olein . 35.000 20.25- 4 35° Fah. 



Oil Contained in Cows' Milk From Different Breeds 



Jersey High Stearin 

Guernsey High Stearin 

Brown Swiss High Stearin 

Short Horn Low Stearin 

Dutch Belted Low Stearin 

Ayrshire Low Stearin 

Scrub Normal 

Holstein High Olein 



Low Olein 
Low Olein 
Low Olein 
High Olein 
High Olein 
High Olein 
Varies quite a lot 
Low Stearin 



Cows when long in lactation high in stearin and new milk, low 
in stearin. Cows fed on dry feed high in stearin, low olein. Cows 
fed on soft feed low in stearin and high in olein. This is effective in 
churning and incorporating moisture, and the ripening process influ- 
ences this very extensively. 



138 Buttermakers Short Course 



Specific Gravity 

Divide lactometer reading by 4 and multiply the fat by 1.2. 
Temperature 60° Fah. lactometer 32, fat 4. 
32 divided by 4 equals 8 times. 
4 divided by 1 .2 equals 4.8. 
4.8 plus 8 equals 12.8. 

Test can be made from temperature ranging from 50° Fah. 
to 70° Fah. 

For every degree above 60° Fah. add 1/10 to lactometer 
reading. 

For every degree below 60° Fah. subtract 1/10 from lac- 
tometer reading. 

Temperature 62° Fah. reading 32.2. 
Temperature 58° Fah. reading 32. 3.18 
Normal milk contains 1 3 T. S. 

Specific Gravity — Water 1 00 per cent 

Butterfat 90 per cent 

Skim milk 1 0.36 per cent 

Whole milk 10.32 per cent 

Lactometers 

Board of Health. Quevenne Lactometer. 

To find the percentage of solids in milk, divide the readings on 
the Quevenne Lactometer by four, and to this result add the 
number giving percentage of fat by 1.2. (Fig. 34.) 

Example: Total solids equals 1.4 L. plus 1.2 F. Lactometer 
is graduated from 1 5 to 40. Read from top down. Standard of 
heat temperature is 60° Fah. Test can be made from 40° Fah. to 
70° Fah. Milk must be from 1 Yi to 3 hours old after milking. 



Buttermakers Short Course 139 



To Test Lactometers 

Weigh up 3 grams of table salt — real fine salt 
— and dissolve in 1 00 c.c. water. If the lactometer 
is right the reading will show 22. When 4 grams 
of salt is used the reading will be 29, and with 5 
grams of salt the reading will be 36. 



Results Proved by Lactometer Test 

Milk that is low in fat content is either skimmed 
or watered. 

When low in lactometer reading it has water 
in it. 

With a high lactometer reading and a low fat 
test it is skimmed. 

The total solids in normal milk should range 
about 12.8. 

High lactometer reading with a low percentage 
of butterfat contains water. 

Low lactometer reading with a low percentage 
of butterfat is skimmed. 



Temperatures of Lactometer Readings 






Lactometer 




Temperatures 


Reading 


Fat 


59° Fah. 


34 


4.6 — normal 


60° " 


35 


2.4 — skimmed 


62° " 


22 


2.3 — watered 


6!° " 


32 


2.5 — skimmed and watered 


61° "> 


36 


.03 — skim milk 



140 Buttermakers Short Course 



Casein 

The casein is the curd part of milk or cheese. The manufacture 
of casein is very important and used in various ways. It is used 
in the manufacture of combs, knife handles, imitation of ivory. It 
is a smooth substance resembling hard rubber and can be polished 
very highly. 

How Manufactured 

It is made by adding a portion of sulphuric acid to skim milk. 
When the separation takes places from the water content of the 
milk then the casein is washed so as to eliminate all the acid, then 
it is put through a drying process and is ground up and ready for 
market. 

Composition of Casein 

Carbon 53 per cent 

Oyxgen 22.70 

Nitrogen 15.70 

Hydrogen 7.00 

Phosphorus 85 

Sulphur 75 



Buttermakers Short Course 141 



CHAPTER XXV 

Dairy Cow Judging 

Head, 8 Per Cent 

I. Muzzle, broad. 2. Jaw, strong, firmly joined. 3. Face, 
medium length, clean. 4. Forehead, broad between the eyes. 5. 
Eyes, large, full, mild, bright. 6. Ears, medium size, fine texture, 
secretions oily, yellow in color. 

Fore-Quarters, 10 Per Cent 

7. Throat, clean. 8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to 
shoulders, free from Duelap. 9. Wethers, narrow and sharp. 1 0. 
Shoulders, sloping, smooth, light. 1 1 . Fore-legs, straight, clean, 
well set under body. 

Body, 25 Per Cent 

12. Cropps, free from fleshiness. 13. Chest, deep, roomy, 
broad. 14. Back, straight, strong, vertebrae open. 15. Ribs, long, 
deep, well sprung, wide apart, 16. Barrell, deep, long, capacious. 
1 7. Loin, strong. 

Hind-Quarters, 12 Per Cent 

18. Hips, prominent, wide apart. 19. Rump, long, level, not 
sloping. 20. Bones, wide apart. 21. Tail, set high, tapering. 22. 
Thighs, spare, not fleshy. 23. Hind legs, well apart, room for 
udder. 

Mammery Development, 30 Per Cent 

24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached high behind, carrying 



142 Buttermakers Short Course 



well forward, quarters even, not cut up. 25. Teats, wide apart, 
uniformly placed, convenient in size. 26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, 
extending well forward. 27. Milk wells, large. 

General Appearance 

28. Disposition, quiet, gentle. 29. Health, thrifty, vigorous. 

30. Quality, free from coarseness throughout, skin soft and pliable. 

3 1 . Temperament, inherent tendency to dairy performance. 



4* 



Buttermakers Short Course 143 



CHAPTER XXVI 

Dairy Cow Feeds and Feeding 

A dairy cow is like a gasoline engine, over-feed her and she 
will stop producing. You flood the carburetor of a gasoline engine 
and you get no power. Properly feed and you will get good results. 

Classes of Feed 

Two classes: Bulk roughage, concentrates. Roughage con- 
tains all coarse portions of feed, hay, straw, corn fodder, stover, 
silage, roots, cowpeas. alfalfa, clover. 

Concentrates include all grains, mill products, oats, wheat, 
corn, middlings, bran, barley, rye, flax seeds, meal. 

Composition of Feeds 

In feeds there are three kinds of substances known as protein, 
carbohydrates and fats. 

Protein grows lean flesh, blood, tendons, nerves, hair, horns, 
wool, casein and albumen in milk. 

Carbohydrates are starch, sugar, gum, crude fibre, coarse 
fodders, mill stuffs contain little fibre, but are rich in starch and 
sugar, and are stored up as fat or burned to produce heat and energy. 

Fats are wax, green coloring matter of plants. One pound of 
fat is equal to 2,2 pounds of carbohydrates. Multiply 2.2 pounds 
of carbohydrates to obtain percentage of fat. 

Balanced Rations for Milch Cows 

The number of pounds stated in each ration is for one day's 
feed of 24 hours, and is appliable to an average cow weighing 900 
to 1,200 lbs-, giving from 3.6 to A% milk. 



144 Buttermakers Short Course 



Pounds 

1 . Corn silage 35 

Hay 8 

Wheat bran 4 

Ground oats 3 

Oil meal 2 

52 

2. Corn silage 50 

Corn stalks 10 

Corn meal 2 

Wheat bran 4 

Malt sprouts 3 

Oil meal . 1 

70 

3. Corn silage 20 

Corn stalks 10 

Hay 4 

Wheat bran 4 

Gluten meal 3 

Corn cob meal 3 

44 

4. Corn silage 40 

Clover, timothy hay 10 

Wheat shorts 3 

Gluten meal 3 

Ground oats 3 

59 



Pounds 

7. Corn silage 35 

Hay 10 

Corn meal 3 

Wheat bran 4 

Ground oats 3 

55 

8. Corn silage 40 

Corn stover 8 

Corn meal 2 

Wheat bran 4 

Oil meal 2 

56 

9. Corn silage 20 

Clover, timothy hay .... 1 5 

Corn meal 3 

Ground oats 3 

Oil meal 2 

Cotton seed meal 1 

44 

10. Clover silage 25 

Corn stover 10 

Hay 5 

Wheat shorts 2 

Oats feed 4 

Corn meal 2 

Linseed meal I 



49 



Buttermakers Short Course 145 



5. Silage 40 

Clover 10 

Oat feed 4 

Corn meal 3 

Gluten meal 3 

60 

6. Silage 45 

Oat straw 5 

Brewers' grains 4 

Corn stalks 5 

Wheat shorts 4 

63 

Neutritive Value of Feeds 

Corn Fodder 

Mixed Grass and Clover. . 

Wheat Bran 

Skimmed Milk 

Corn Silage 

Gluten Meal 

Corn or Cornmeal 

Mangles 

Red Clover Hay 

Alfalfa (green) 

Alfalfa (hay) 



1 1 . Clover silage 30 

Dry fodder 10 

Oat straw 4 

Wheat bran 4 

Malt sprouts 2 

Oil meal 2 

52 

1 2. Clover silage 40 

Hay 10 

Roots 20 

Corn meal 4 

Ground oats 4 

Linseed meal 1 

79 

Nutritive Ratio 
:14.9 
: 7.4 
: 3.7 
: 2 
:14.3 
: 2.5 
: 9.7 
: 5.1 
: 3.1 
: 3.1 
: 3.8 



Feeding Calves 

For feeding a young calf use 2 quarts of whole milk three 
times a day from its own mother for the first 1 00 pounds of live 



146 Buttermafyers Short Course 



weight. After the calf weighs 1 00 pounds, take 1 pounds of 
skimmilk and 2 pounds of whole milk, and for the third 1 00 pounds 
of weight feed 1 pounds of skimmilk three times a day. 

Changing Feed 

When we change the milk from whole to skimmed milk in 
feeding calves it should be done very gradually. First substitute 
J/2 pint of skimmilk to the whole milk for the first five days, then 
gradually decrease the whole milk and increase the skimmilk until 
the calf is getting all skimmilk. 

Caution: Be sure that milk is sweet and clean. Using clean 
utensils and have the milk at blood heat (87° Fah.) and be very 
careful to prevent the calf from getting any foam from milk separated 
from a centrifugal separator, as this contains air and will cause bloat 
and has a direct effect on the calf's stomach. 

Time to Feed. 

Calves should be fed three times a day. Don't let the little 
calves wait all day, as they are babies and need care and attention. 
The correct percentage of fat in milk for feeding calves is 3 per cent. 
Milk containing more than 3 per cent fat is too rich. 



Buttermakers Short Course 147 



CHAPTER XXVII 

General Creamery Information 

What to Do in Case of Accidents 

Should flue spring leak during run, plug can be driven in with 
a sledge. Hardwood and iron plugs should be kept on hand. 

Should governor break during run, run on throttle until re- 
paired. 

Should smoke stack blow off creamery, connect exhaust in 
smoke stack to produce a draught. 

Should churn tip over when butter is in granular form, plug 
drain and flood creamery with cold water, and save all the butter. 

Should boiler foam, shut down engine and keep pump or in- 
jector working. 

Should steam pump refuse to work, run cold water on outside. 
Sometimes rings stick, lubricate well with heavy oil. 

Should creamery catch on fire on roof, turn live steam on under 
roof. This will smother the fire. 

Should friction clutch break on churn, tie clutch arm to main 
drive wheel and start and stop the engine. 

In operating steam boiler and water glass brakes, cover up 
arms and head to prevent being scalded, closing lower valve first 
and then close upper valve. 

In case throttle sticks and cannot be closed, engine can be 
stopped by using 2x6 foot lever on flywheel after throttling gov- 
ernor. Use lever between flywheel and floor. 

Should you forget to put color in cream when churning, color 
the salt. 



148 Buttermakers Short Course 



Should small belt slip, twist a few times until run is over. 

Should box run hot, cool with cold water, turn stream on out- 
side box. 

Should injector refuse to work, look for trouble in upper check 
or lower spray connection. Pouring cold water on will sometimes 
help. 

Should drain become clogged, connect with steam and put on 
pressure. 

Should drain freeze, use salt brine and boil with steam hose. 
The hot brine will penetrate through the frost. 

Cleaning Creamery Floors, Churns and Glassware 

To clean a creamery churn use Yi gallon of sulphuric acid 
and 20 gallons of boiling water. Put the acid into 2 gallons of 
cold water, then add to the hot water, being very careful that the 
acid does not explode when coming in contact with the hot water, 
then put into churn, run from five to six minutes, being careful not 
to get any of the solution on outside of churn. After running, draw 
out of the churn and rinse with a strong solution of alkali. Wyandotte 
washing powder is preferable, using a 5-lb. sack to 40 gallons of 
water. Rinse with boiling water several times, and then rinse with 
cold water. By using this method it will remove all stains and butter- 
fat from the wood ; also will remove mold. 

Floors 

To clean a cement floor, rinse off with boiling hot water, then 
use coal oil (kerosene) ; rub in well; afterwards use sulphuric acid 
and bichromate of potash; rub well into the cement, then use boiling 
water and Lewis lye. Use boiling hot water to rinse the floor off. 
This method will remove grease and rust spots and whiten the floor. 

Caution. Do not put sulphuric acid on floor until after the 
floor has been wet with boiling hot water as it will soften the cement 
and ruin the floors. 



Buttermakers Short Course 149 



To Clean Glassware 

To clean Babcock test bottles, pipettes, flasks or any glass- 
ware used in the creamery, use sulphuric acid and bichromate of 
potash or potassium chromate, using a mixture of five parts acid and 
one part bichromate of potash. After the bottles have been washed 
with this solution, rinse well with an alkali solution, Wyandotte 
washing powder, and then with clean hot water. 

Proper Slant for Floors in Factories and Cheese Factories 

The proper slant for floors in creameries and cheese factories 
is a drop of one inch per running foot. Any less does not give slant 
enough. 

Red Reader Used for the Babcock Test 

This solution is made from Emyl alcohol and a few drops of 
indelible ink for coloring it. This has no effect on the fat. Never 
use any kind of oils or foreign substance, as there is great danger of 
increasing the fat column and getting too high a reading. 

Pressure 

To find the pressure, multiply the height by .43. A tank 100 
feet high will have 43 lbs. pressure to the square inch. 

Temperature of Water as Indicated by Pressure 

The boiling point of water is 212° Fah. At 5 lbs. of steam 
pressure, temperature will be 227° Fah. At 25 lbs. of steam 
pressure, temperature will be 267° Fah. At 50 lbs. of steam pres- 
sure, temperature will be 297° Fah. At 100 lbs. of steam pressure, 
temperature will be 337° Fah. At 200 lbs. of steam pressure, tem- 
perature will be 389° Fah. 



150 Buttermakers Short Course 



Soaking a New Churn 

When a new churn is being installed in a creamery it is neces- 
sary to clean and soak the drum. First use 40 to 60 gallons of 
boiling water and two quarts of Wyandotte washing powder, put in 
drum, close doors and run for 3 to 4 minutes ; then remove doors and 
drain water out of churn through door openings. Then rinse out 
with 40 to 50 gallons hot water. After this is done, fill churn full 
of water at a temperature of 90° Fah., close doors, and turn down 
to soak, cork and let stand eight or twelve hours, then remove water 
from drum. Wash out drum with hot water, then cold water, and 
churn is ready for use and there will be no wood flavors in butter. 
Caution 

Be sure and fill drum full of water at a temperature of 90° 
Fah. Do not use cold water in soaking drum. It will color it 
black and ruin churn. 

A churn properly soaked will retain a nice, clean, white appear- 
ance inside. 

Churn should be scalded out with boiling water after being used 
every day. Use water 212°, running drum 4 to 5 minutes. Let 
churn cool off. Do not use cold water to cool with. 



Buttermaf?ers Short Course 151 



Rules and Information 

To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base by the altitude 
and take half the product. 

To find the area of a rectangle, multiply the length by the 
breadth. 

To find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter by 
3.1416. 

To find the diameter of a circle, divide the circumference by 
3.1416. 

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diameter 
by .7854. 

To find the cubic contents of a cylinder, multiply the area of 
the base by the height. 

To find the surface of a sphere, multiply the square of the 
diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the cubic contents of a sphere, multiply the cube of 
the diameter by .5236. 

To find the cubic contents of any irregular solid, fill a vessel 
to the brim with water ; sink the body in the water, catching the water 
which is displaced and measuring it. 

A gallon of water weighs 8 1-3 pounds and contains 231 cubic 
inches. 

A cubic foot of water contains lYl gallons, 1,728 cubic 
inches, and weighs 62 Yl pounds. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column 
of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. 

The standard horse power is 33,000 pounds raised one foot 
in one minute. 

The standard horse power for steam boiler is the evaporation 
of 30 pounds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of 
100 degrees F. into steam at 70 pounds gage pressure. 
Questions and Answers 

The following is a list of questions and answers, some of which 
are usually asked by boiler inspectors when giving an engineer an 



152 Buttermakers Short Course 



examination for a license. The questions asked by a boiler inspector 
depend to a considerable extent upon what kind and size of boiler 
the engineer desires to operate, also upon the engineer's experience 
and personal appearance. The boiler inspector will often ask ques- 
tions which he does not expect the applicant will be able to answer. 
He asks the question simply to bring out an expression from the appli- 
cant, and learn whether he is honest and reliable. An applicant is 
usually questioned as to his age, the amount of experience which he 
has had, in firing and in operating an engine or machinery of any 
kind. Also as to what class and size of machinery he desires to 
operate. If the applicant has had experience with engines and boilers, 
he should be able to state the kind and size of boiler and engine, also 
state the general design of the engine and boiler. The applicant 
should not attempt to answer questions which he does not understand. 
He should be perfectly free in his explanations, and not attempt to 
explain anything which he does not understand. 

Q. What is steam? 

A. Steam is a vapor given off from water when heated to the 
boiling point. 

Q. What is the boiling point of water? 

A. The boiling point of water depends upon the pressure. In 
an open kettle, at the sea level, water boils at a temperature of 212 
degrees Fahrenheit. If confined in a closed boiler, the boiling tem- 
perature will rise when the steam pressure rises. If a vacuum be 
produced the water will boil at less than 212 degrees, the boiling 
point depending on the vacuum secured. 

Q. What is the temperature of steam at 1 00 pounds gage 
pressure? 

A. 337 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Q. How much more space will water occupy when turned 
into steam than it occupied as water? 

A. The space occupied by the water when turned into steam 
will depend upon the pressure. At the pressure of the atmosphere it 
will occupy about 1,700 times as much space. At 100 pounds gage 
pressure it will occupy about 240 times as much space. 



Buttermakers Short Course 153 



Q. How should the glass gage be set on a boiler? 

A. The glass gage should be set so that the bottom of the 
glass is level with or just a trifle higher than the crown sheet or top 
row of tubes in the boiler. 

Q. Are glass gages always properly set on boilers? 

A. No. Often they are placed too high or too low. 

Q. How could you tell if a gage was properly set? 

A. By leveling it with a spirit level, or by removing the hand- 
hole and measuring the amount of water over the tubes or crown 
sheet, and comparing it with the amount shown in the glass gage. 

Q. How should the gage-cocks be set? 

A. The lowest gage-cock should be set about one inch above 
the crown sheet or top row of tubes. The middle gage-cock should 
be about four to six inches above the crown sheet or top row of tubes, 
the distance depending somewhat upon the size of the boiler. A 
large boiler should have the gage-cocks a little higher. 

Q. How much water would you carry over the tubes or 
crown sheet? 

A. From four to six inches, depending upon the size of the 
boiler. A large size boiler should have a little more water than one 
of a smaller size. 

Q. What harm would it do to carry more water? 

A. Carrying more water would not leave sufficient steam 
room in the boiler, and the boiler would be liable to foam or prime. 
Water would be carried over with the steam into the engine. This 
would be wasteful of fuel, as cold water must be pumped in to main- 
tain the water level, and the engine would not run as well as it would 
with dry steam. 

Q. What harm would it do to carry less water? 

A. Carrying less water would be dangerous in case the pump 
or injector should stop working, the water level would become too low 
and there would be danger of burning the tubes or the crown sheet. 

Q. How often would you clean the tubes on a boiler? 

A. The tubes should be cleaned with a scraper as often as 



154 Buttermakers Short Course 



necessary to keep them perfectly clean. The frequency of cleaning 
them will depend upon the amount of fuel used and to what extent 
the boiler is used. They should be cleaned in the morning before 
firing up, at least. 

Q. How would you manage a boiler in regard to keeping 
it clean? 

A. The frequency of cleaning a boiler will depend upon the 
amount of water that is used and to what extent the boiler is used. 
Under usual conditions the boiler should be blown out a little every 
day. It is a good plan before stopping after a day's run to pump in 
more water than is required while running. The next morning after 
the fire is started, and from 1 to 40 pounds pressure has been raised, 
open the blow-off valve and blow the water down to the proper level. 
If the water is very muddy, it is a good plan to blow it out a little 
after dinner, before starting up. After the boiler has been run for 
some length of time, usually from one to three weeks, the water 
should all be turned out, and the boiler opened and thoroughly 
washed inside. The boiler should not be blown out under steam 
pressure. The best time to blow it out is when the steam pressure 
has just gone down and the water is hot. Open the blow-off valve, 
let all the water run out, remove the handholes and manholes, and 
wash the boiler with a hose if pressure can be had. The boiler 
should also be scraped with a scraper consisting of an elliptical shaped 
piece of iron shaped to fit the side of the boiler and fastened to a rod 
for a handle. 

Q. Is it always necessary to use a boiler compound? 

A. No. In many cases boiler compounds would be of no 
benefit whatever, especially where the water is soft and contains only 
substances which form a mud, and do not turn into a hard scale. 

Q. Under what conditions is a boiler compound necessary? 

A. A boiler compound is necessary when the water is such as 
to form a hard scale on the shell and tubes of the boiler, and it is 
not possible to keep it from forming by washing the boiler frequently 
and scraping it with an iron scraper. 



Buttermakers Short Course 155 



Q. Will boiler compound make the water perfectly pure? 

A. No. All that a boiler compound can do is to change the 
scale-forming substance in the water so as to prevent it forming a hard 
scale, but it will remain in the boiler in the form of a soft mud which 
must be removed by blowing out and washing the boiler frequently. 

Q. How low is it safe to allow the water to become* in the 
boiler? 

A. A boiler is safe, and more water may be admitted, as 
long as there is water over the tubes or crown sheet. It is always 
best, however, not to allow the water to become lower than one inch 
above the tubes and crown sheet. 

Q. What should be done in case the water becomes as low as 
the tubes or crown sheet? 

A. When the water becomes as low as the tubes or crown 
sheet, the fire should be pulled out and the boiler allowed to cool 
down before admitting more water. 

Q. What precautions should be taken with the safety valve? 

A. The safety valve should be opened every morning when 
about 40 pounds steam pressure has been raised, in order to see that 
it is in good working order and not stuck to its seat. 

Q. Give several causes for a boiler feed pump refusing to 
work. 

A. Leaks in the suction pipe; pump plunger worn; sticks, etc., 
getting under the pump valves or check valve; pump not properly 
packed; too high a lift; the water too hot; pump being air bound; 
suction pipe being clogged up ; discharge pipe between the pump and 
the boiler may be filled with scale. 

Q. Give several causes for an injector refusing to work. 

A. Leaks in the suction pipe; sticks, etc., being drawn into 
the injector partly closing the openings; too high a lift; water too 
hot; not sufficient steam pressure; leaking check valve; the injector 
sealed up; discharge pipe between injector and boiler may be sealed 
up. 

Q. What are the usual causes of leaking boiler tubes? 



156 Buttermakers Short Course 



A. Boiler tubes are liable to leak when the flue doors are open 
and allow cold air to strike them. The tubes being of thinner 
material than the boiler shell will cool quicker, and in cooling contract 
more than the shell of the boiler, causing a strain at the tube ends. 
When the water is allowed to become below the tubes in the boiler; 
they will become overheated and are liable to leak. 

Q. How would you stop boiler tubes from leaking? 

A. Small leaks may usually be stopped by the use of a bead- 
ing tool, turning the ends of the tube down against the tube sheet. If 
the tubes leak badly, they should be expanded with a tube expander 
and then beaded down with the beading tool. 

Q. What causes "foaming" in a boiler? 

A. "Foaming" is usually caused by the boiler being dirty or 
the water being impure. It is more liable to occur when the water is 
high in the boiler and the engine is working hard. 

Q. How would you prevent "foaming"? 

A. "Foaming" may be prevented by keeping the boiler clean 
and using as pure water as is possible to get. Carry the steam pres- 
sure high, and do not carry more water than is necessary to be safe. 

Q. What parts would you examine closely on taking charge of 
a steam boiler and engine? 

A. The boiler should be examined closely inside and out to 
determine whether it is clean, also if the boiler material is in good 
condition, the boiler not rusted, pitted, bagged or blistered. Also 
notice the ends of the tubes and see that the bead is not burned or 
rusted off. Trace out all pipes. See how the glass-gage and gage- 
cocks are set, comparing them with the top side of the top row of 
tubes, or with the crown sheet. Examine the pipe between the pump 
or injector and boiler to be sure it is not scaled up. See that all valves 
are packed and are in good working condition. If the boiler is set in 
brickwork, see that all cracks or openings which would admit air, 
except through the ashpit doors, are carefully closed. 

Q. What is a simple engine? 

A. A simple engine is an engine that uses steam once only. 



Buttermakers Short Course 157 



Q, What is a compound engine? 

A. A compound engine is an engine using the steam more than 
once, passing it first into a small or high pressure cylinder and ex- 
hausting from the high pressure cylinder into one or more other 
cylinders. 

Q. What is a condensing engine? 

A. A condensing engine is an engine that exhausts into a con- 
denser, which is a contrivance for condensing the exhaust steam, 
thereby gaining part of the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Q. What is "lead" on an engine? 

A. "Lead" on an engine is the amount of opening which the 
slide valve allows into the steam port when the engine is on dead 
center. 

Q. How would you give an engine more lead? 

A. In a simple slide-valve engine give the engine more lead 
by turning the eccentric ahead on the shaft, or the direction in which 
the engine was running. 

Q. If an engine had more lead on one end than on the other, 
how would you make it even? 

A. The lead must be made even by moving the slide-valve on 
the rod, or by adjusting the eccentric rod, one-half of the difference 
between the lead on each end. 

Q. If an engine is given more lead, what effect will it have 
on the point of cut-off, compression and exhaust of the engine? 

A. If an engine is given more lead at the point of cut-off, the 
compression and opening of the exhaust port will all take place earlier 
in the stroke. 

Q. What would you do if the water got out of sight in your 
glass-gage? 

A. If the bottom of the glass-gage was set level with the top 
of the tubes or crown sheet, pull out the fire and allow the boiler to 
cool down before adding water. The engine should be allowed to 
run in order to relieve the pressure. 

Q. What would you do in case the water was becoming low 
in the boiler? 



158 Buttermakers Short Course 



A. When water got down to within one inch of the tubes or 
crown sheet, and it was not possible to get water in immediately, the 
fire should be banked with fresh coal or ashes. If a wood or straw 
fire, it should be allowed to die out. The engine should be stopped 
in order to hold what water there is in the boiler. As soon as water 
can be obtained and the pump or injector started, it will be safe to 
admit more water. 

Q. How would you regulate the amount of water a cross- 
head pump puts into the boiler? 

A. The amount of water which a cross-head pump will put 
into a boiler is regulated by a valve on the suction pipe. 

Q. How would you reverse a simple slide-valve engine? 

A. A simple slide-valve engine is reversed by placing the 
engine on dead center, turning the eccentric about one-third way 
around on the shaft in the direction the engine was running, or until 
it has the same amount of lead on the same end it had running in 
the other direction. 

Q. Is the piston of an engine in the center of the cylinder 
when the crank pin stands at the top or bottom quarter? 

A. No. When the crank is at top or bottom quarter the 
piston will be a little more than half way towards the crank end of 
the cylinder. The distance it would be past the center would depend 
upon the length of the crank and connecting rod. 

Q. Is the area of the piston the same on each side? 

A. No. The side of the piston towards the. crank has less 
area on account of the space occupied by the piston rod. In esti- 
mating horse power one-half the area of the piston rod is deducted 
from the area of the piston. This is done for the reason that one-half 
the work on the piston is done on the end where the rod does not 
take up part of the piston area and one-half is done on the end where 
the pistod rod occupies part of the area. 

Q. What would be the horse power of a simple slide-valve 
engine having a cylinder 6x9 inches running 225 revolutions per min- 
ute, carrying 1 00 pounds steam pressure on the boiler. Diameter of 
the piston rod I % inches. 



Buttermakcrs Short Course 159 



A. 6 times 6 equals 36, 36 times .7854 equals 28.2744 
inches (area of piston). 

28.2744 minus .6135 (half the area of the piston rod) equals 
27,6639 inches (actual area of the piston). 

27.6639 times 50 (half of boiler pressure) equals 1383.195 
(total average pressure on piston). 

9 inches (length of stroke) times 2 equals 1 8 inches of travel 
of piston with each revolution. 

225 times 18 equals 4050 inches. 

4050 inches divided by 12 equals 337.5 feet, travel of piston 
per minute. 

1383.195 times 337.5 equals 466,828 foot pounds. 

466,828 divided by 33,000 equals 1 4. 1 horse power. 

Q. State by steps how you would put an engine on dead 
center. 

A. First, turn the engine about 14 of a turn above dead 
center. 

Second. Make a mark across the cross-head and guide. 

Third. With one end of a tram placed upon a permanent 
mark on the engine frame, make a mark on the fly wheel or disk with 
the other end of the tram. 

Fourth. Turn the engine below dead center until the mark on 
the cross-head is brought in line with the mark on the guide. 

Fifth. With one end of the tram placed in the same perma- 
nent mark on the engine frame, make another mark on the engine 
fly wheel or disk. 

Sixth. Measure on the fly wheel or disk and find a point half 
way between the two marks made with the tram. 

Seventh. Turn the engine so as to bring this center point on 
the engine fly wheel or disk even with the point of the tram. The 
engine will then be on dead center. 

Eighth. Find the opposite dead center by repeating the opera- 
tion on the other end, or by measuring around one-half way on the 
fly wheel or disk. 



160 Butter makers Short Course 



Q. State by steps how you would proceed to set a slide valve 
in a simple slide-valve engine. 

A. First. Put the engine on dead center. 

Second. Turn the eccentric one-fourth of a turn ahead of the 
crank. 

Third. Place the slide-valve in the center of its travel so as 
to cover both steam ports equally, and fasten it to the valve rod. 

Fourth. Turn the eccentric ahead the direction the engine is 
to run until 1 /32 of an inch lead is obtained on the same end of the 
cylinder that the piston is on. Fasten the eccentric to the shaft. 

Fifth. Turn the engine on the other dead center to see if you 
have the same amount of lead on the other end. If the lead is equal 
on both ends the valve will be set. 

Sixth. If there is more lead on one end than on the other, 
make the lead even by moving the slide-valve on the rod, or adjusting 
the length of the eccentric rod, until it has the same lead at both ends. 

Seventh. If the valve has too much lead on both ends, but the 
lead is equal, give less lead by turning the eccentric back. If there is 
not enough lead turn the eccentric ahead. 



Butiermakers Short Course 161 



Melting Point of Substances 

Substance Deg. Fah. 

Butter 82.95 

Lard 88.96 

Tallow 92.111 

Butter containing large amount of sterin 96 

Butter containing large amount of olein 80 

Sterin melts at 110 

Olein melts at 35 



Substance 



Deg. Fah. Substance 



Deg. Fah. 



Mercury 

Ice 32 

Tallow 92 

Sulphur 239 

Tin 1 , Lead 1 408 

Tin .446 

Bismuth 505 

Lead 613 

Zinc 780 



39 Antimony 815 

Bronze 1 692 

Silver 1 740 

Gold 1975 

Copper 2000 

Cast Iron 2075 

Steel 2480 

Wrought Iron 2822 

Brass 1850 



Weight of a Cubic Foot of Substances 



Substance 



Wt. Lbs. Substance 



Aluminum 1 62 

Brass 504 

Brick 125 

Cement (Portland) ... 90 
Coal, hard, heaped 

bushel, loose 80 

Coal, soft, heaped 

bushel, loose 76 

Earth, common loam, 

dry 76 

Gold , , 1 204 



Wt. Lbs. 



Hickory, dry 53 



Fah.. 



58.7 
450 
711 
849 

50 

45 
100 

50 
490 
Water . r 62.5 



Ice 

Iron, cast . . . . 

Lead 

Mercury at 32 c 
Oak, dry 

Salt 

Sand, dry . . . 

Snow 

Steel 



15 to 



162 Buttermakers Short Course 



Standard Bolt Threads 



Diameter 



V* 


inch 


5 
16 


inch 


% 


inch 


A 


inch 


Vi 


inch 



No. Threads 
per Inch 

. . . . 20 



18 
16 
14 
13 



Diameter 

T % inch .... 

% inch 11 



No. Threads 

per Inch 
.... 12 



% inch 

Y% inch 

I inch 



10 
9 
8 



Temperature of Fire Corresponding to its Appearance 
Appearance Temp. Fah. Appearance Temp. Fah. 



Red, just visible 997° 

Red, dull 1290° 

Red, cherry dull 1470° 

Red, cherry dull 1650° 

Red, cherry clear. . . . 1830° 

Composition of Metals and Alloys 



Orange, deep 2010° 

Orange, clear 2 1 90° 

White heat 2370° 

White, bright 2550° 

White, dazzling 2730° 



Copper Tin Zinc Lead 

Babbitt 4 88 

Brass, common .... 85 . . 15 

Bronze 80 18 2 

Fusible plug ...... . . 1 00 

Plumbers' solder 33 

Tinners' solder 50 



Anti- 
mony 
8 



Melting 
Point 



67 
50 



1850° 

446° 
450° 
408° 



Proper Size of Pop Safely Valves, Crosby's 

Diameter of Valve, inches 1 1 '/4 

Capacity in Horse Power 10 20 

Water 



30 



2 '2|/ 2 3 
50 80 100 



Colorless, liquid, toned by transparent liquid, chemically 
neutral, devoid of taste or smell. Maximum density is at a tern- 



Butiermakers Short Course 163 



perature of 39° Fah. At a temperature above 39° Fah. expands. 
At a temperature below 39° Fah. expands. 

One cubic inch of water will make one cubic foot of steam 
and occupies 1,700 times as much space. One cubic foot of water 
weighs 62|/2 lbs. and contains 7.5 gallons, or 1,728 cubic inches. 
One gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 lbs., and contains 231 cubic 
inches. Freezes at 32° Fah. and boils at 212° Fah. 

Zero 

Zero means nothing. A starting point. In arithmetic called 
"naught." Means no number in algebra, zero. Point of com- 
mencement on a thermometer or scale. On a Fahrenheit thermometer 
the freezing point is marked at 32. The boiling point is 212. Zero 
is 32. Above 32 is warmer. Below is colder. Freezes at 32. 
In the centigrade thermometer zero is freezing point. Zero indicates 
the commencement of any scale or reckoning. 



INDEX 

A 

Accidents, What to Do in Case of 147 

Area 31 

B 

Babcock Testers, Speed 55 

Bacterial Count in Market Milk 135 

Ball and Lever Safety Valves, Rules for Figuring 15 

Belt Lacing 40 

Boilers 9 

Boiler Blisters 12 

Boiler Blowing Out 12 

Boilers, Care for Steam 11 

Boilers, Cleaning Ashes from Pit 12 

Boliers, Compounds 12 

Boilers, Horse Power by Grate Surface 11 

Boilers, Horse Power by Heating 9 

Boilers, Horse Power by Test 9 

Boiler Injectors 17 

Boiler Injectors to Clean 14 

Boiler Injector Trouble 14 

Boiler Inspection 13 

Boiler Inspection, Hammer Test 13 

Boilers, Method of Estimating Horse Power 9 

Boilers, Scale Inside 12 

Boilers, Size of and Horse Power 9 

Boilers, Strength of Steam 14 

Boilers, Tensile Strength 14 

Boiling Point of Water, What Is 17 

Bolt Threads, Standard 1G2 

Brake Horse Power of Steam Engine 2S 

Butter 88 

Butter, Amount of Wash Water to Use 88 

Butter, Controlling Moisture 92 

Butter, How to Incorporate Moisture 92 

Butter, Moisture and Moisture Test 92 

Butter, Moisture Test 94 

Butter, Mottled 82 

Butter, Mottled, To Overcome 82 

Butter, Necessity of Controlling Moisture 93 

Butter, Over Run 94 

Butter, Over Run, Why Fluctuates i 95 

Butter, Packing in Boxes and Tubes 97 

Butter, Salt Test 90 

Butter, Salting 86 

Butter, Scoring 100 

Butter, Second Wash Water 88 

P. utter, Size of Granules '. 87 

Butter, Temperature of Washed 87 

Butter, Temperature When Removed from Churn 87 



Index 165 



Butter, Time for Churning 87 

Butter, Trough 86 

Butter, Washing 85 

Butter, Weak Bodied or Slushy 83 

Butter, Working 86 

C 

Calves, Feeding 145 

Caselin 140 

Casein, Composition of 140 

Cheese, Proper Slant for Floor in Factory 149 

Churn, Soaking a New 150 

Cleaning, Creamery Floors, Churns and Glassware.. 148 

Commercial Starters 69 

Commercial Starters, Agitating 73 

Commercial Starters, Amount to Use in Large Can 72 

Commercial Starters, Burnt Flavor 72 

Commercial Starters, How to Figure Percentage Used 79 

Commercial Starters, Quantity of Milk 79 

Commercial Starters, What to Do to Grow 70 

Commercial Starters, What Not to Do to Grow 70 

Cream, Blowing 60 

Cream, Effects of Slow Ripening 79 

Cream, Cooling 113 

Cream, Churning 85 

Cream, Cost of Pasteurizing . . 64 

Cream, Fast Ripening 80 

Cream, Pasteurization, Facts That Apply to 66 

Cream, Pasteurization of for Butter-Making 62 

Cream, Pasteurization Ripening 77 

Cream, Regenerative Pasteurizer 65 

Cream, Ripening 77 

Cream, Temperature to Be Used in Pasteurization 147 

Creamery, General Information 147 

D 

Dairy Cows, Feed and Feeding 143 

Dairy Cows, Judging 141 

Dairy Products, Causes of Defects in Tests 55 

Dairy Products, Testing for Butter Fat 53 

E 

Engines, Steam 21 

Engines, Figuring Horse Power 28 

Engines, Governors 31 

Engines, Governors, Throttle 32 

Engines, History of 21 

Engines, Indicators 36 

Engines, Inventor of Cut-Off 21 

Engines, Racing 35 



166 Ind 



ex 



Engines, Racing Causes 36 

Engines, Side Valves Setting 25 

Engines, Steam Gauge 20 

Engines, Steam, How to Test 20 

Engines, To Find Horse Power 27 

Exhaust Steam, Advantages of Heating with. 46 

Exhaust Steam, Capacity of Tanks 46 

Exhaust Steam, Location of Tanks and Coils 48 

Exhaust Steam, Size of Pipe to Use 44 

Exhaust Steam, Size of Tanks and Coils 48 

Exhaust Steam, Things to Remember if Using in the Floor... 44 
Exhaust Steam, Utilization of Exhaust Steam in Creameries... 47 

Exhaust Water Heater, Advantages of 52 

Exhaust Water Connections 49 

Exhaust Water Heater System 51 

F 

Fans, Size to Use 128 

Fats, Contained in Butterfat 137 

Flavors in Butter and Cream 81 

Flavors, Curdy 82 

Flavors, Metallic 83 

Flavors, To Overcome Curdy 82 

Flavors, To Overcome Fishy 83 

Flavors, To Overcome Unclean 82 

Flavors, Wood 83 

Flues, Foil Air 128 

Flues, Foil Air, Location of 128 

Flues, Location of Intake 128 

Flues, Main 128 

G 

Glassware, to Clean 149 

H 

Ice Bunker, Insulated Refrigerators 119 

Ice House, Filling 117 

Ice House, The Insulated System 112 

Ice House, The Insulated System, First Cost 117 

Ice House, Refrigerator Table 112 

L 

Lactometers 139 

Lactometers, Temperature Reading 139 

Lactometers, To Test 139 

Lumpy Cream, To Test 55 



Index 167 



M 

Melting Point, in Substances 161 

Metals and Alloys, Composition of 162 

Milch Cows, Balanced Rations 143 

Milk, Analysis from Different Dairy Breeds 136 

Milk, Chemistry and Chemical Analysis 136 

Milk, Composition of First and Last Drawn from Cow 133 

Milk, For Market 133 

Milk, Oil Contained in Milk from Different Breeds 137 

Milk, Specific Gravity 138 

Milk, Temperature for Separation 132 

N 

Neutralizer Solution, Making of 56 

Neutralizer, Effects of Too Much 59 

O 

Oils Contained in Cow Milk from Different Breeds 137 

P 

Packages, Liners 97 

Packages, Preparing for Market 97 

Pop Safety Valves, Proper Size 162 

Pulleys, Speed of 37 

R 

Refrigeration, Creamery 102 

Refrigeration, Mechanical 105 

S 

Salt Test, Formula 91 

Salt Test, Indicator 91 

Separators, Cream, Speed 131 

Separators, Effect of Variation in Speed 131 

Separators, Speeds 131 

Steam, What Is 17 

T 
Tank, Size to Use 97 



168 



Index 



Ventilation, Advantages of Proper. . . . 

Ventilation, Elbow 

Ventilation, Exhaust Fan 

Ventilation and Heat 

Ventilation, Importance of 

Ventilation, Measurement of Air 

Ventilation, Motiye Power 

lation, Principles of 

ation, Speed of Fan 

lation, Unnecessary Expense of 
lation, Where to Install Fan . . . 



Venti 
Ven 
Vent 
Vent 



til 



.129 
.127 
.124 
.129 
.122 
.126 
.127 
.127 
.126 
.129 
.126 



w 

Water, Temperature as Indicated by Pressure 149 



Zero 



163 



